The cognitive processing of Japanese loanwords in katakana

Abstract: The present study examined two questions concerning the cognitive processing of Japanese loanwords borrowed from English and written in katakana. The first question was whether "interlexical activation" occurs between Japanese and English. Results from a lexical decision task showed that loanwords phonetically similar to the original English words were judged with the same speed and accuracy as those being phonetically dissimilar to their original English words. The study further examined the cognitive processing of unadopted loanwords (i.e., words unlisted in a Japanese loanword dictionary). Reaction times displayed the shortest mean for non-words, followed by pseudo-loanwords, and finally unadopted loanwords. Thus, the only time the lexical representation of an original English word was possibly activated was when native Japanese speakers had seldom seen the word in katakana. The second question was what creates the "lexical mental boundary" between adopted and unadopted loanwords. A questionnaire showed that native Japanese speakers are likely to use decision-making strategies for determining lexicality of loanwords in Japanese based on their daily experience of exposure to katakana words in print.     

Memory by association: Integrating memories prolongs retention by two-year-olds

Recalling one memory often leads to the recollection of other memories that share overlapping features. This phenomenon, spreading activation, was originally documented in studies conducted with verbal adults, and more recently, it has been demonstrated with preverbal infants. Here, we examine the effect of spreading activation on long-term retention by 2-year-olds. Participants were tested in the Visual Recognition Memory (VRM) paradigm and the deferred imitation paradigm. Typically, infants of this age exhibit retention in the VRM paradigm for 24 h, while they exhibit retention in the deferred imitation paradigm for at least 8 weeks. In the present experiment, we paired these tasks together during original encoding and tested infants after an 8-week delay. Two-year-olds exhibited retention in both tasks. That is, when these two tasks initially occurred together – one task that is extremely memorable and one that is not – retrieving the memory of the more memorable task cued retrieval of the less memorable task, extending its longevity.     

Reduced cortical voluntary activation during bilateral knee extension

IntroductionReduced neural drive is mainly thought to explain the bilateral deficit phenomenon, i.e. the difference in maximal isometric voluntary contraction (MVC) between unilateral and bilateral contractions. The aim of the present study was to further document if bilateral knee extension is associated with changes in voluntary activation level assessed by both peripheral nerve electrical stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation.MethodsFourteen subjects performed unilateral and bilateral knee extensions with both superimposed femoral electrical nerve stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation in order to assess voluntary activation (VA_FNES) and cortical voluntary activation (VA_TMS), respectively.ResultsThere was no difference in MVC force of the tested leg when involved in unilateral and bilateral knee extensions (p = 0.87). However, a significantly reduced VA_FNES (−2.1 ± 2.4%; p = 0.01) and VA_TMS (−1.6 ± 2.7%; p = 0.04) have been evidenced during bilateral knee extension.DiscussionIt is hypothesized that counterbalances could have masked the decrease of voluntary activation during bilateral contraction.     

Do Bilinguals Automatically Activate Their Native Language When They Are Not Using It?

Most models of lexical access assume that bilingual speakers activate their two languages even when they are in a context in which only one language is used. A critical piece of evidence used to support this notion is the observation that a given word automatically activates its translation equivalent in the other language. Here, we argue that these findings are compatible with a different account, in which bilinguals “carry over” the structure of their native language to the non‐native language during learning, and where there is no activation of translation equivalents. To demonstrate this, we describe a model in which language learning involves mapping native language phonological relationships to the non‐native language, and we show how it can explain the results attributed to automatic activation of translation equivalents.     

Explaining the persistence of false memories: a proposal based on associative activation and thematic extraction

This study aimed to analyse the effect of retention intervals on associative and thematic false memories. Two experiments, using two types of critical items that were either associatively or thematically related to studied material, were conducted. In both experiments, one group of participants performed a recognition test immediately after the presentation of lists, and another group performed the task one week later. In Experiment 1, the recognition test consisted of pairs of items with four response alternatives (both items had been presented, only the left item had been presented, only the right item had been presented or none of the items had been presented). Critical items were also manipulated so that they were either presented in or absent from the list. In Experiment 2, a standard recognition test that differed in the mode of presentation was used: self-paced or speeded response. Both experiments showed that associative critical items were more recognised than thematic critical items in the immediate condition. However, whereas associative critical items decayed after a one-week delay, thematic critical items were similarly recognised at both retention intervals. The findings of the present study suggest that each type of process – associative and thematic – behave differently over time.     

儿童句子错误记忆:发展性逆转现象及精加工推理效应

为探究文本背景下句子错误记忆的发展性逆转现象及精加工推理效应,95名有效被试学习3篇文本材料后,参与由学过句、内涵推理句、外延推理句和无关句组成的再认测验。结果发现：（1）高中二年级被试学过句的正确再认率和关键诱饵句的校正的错误再认率均显著高于小学五年级和初中二年级,后二者差异不显著;（2）内涵推理句错误再认率高于外延推理句,高中二年级被试尤甚。结论：（1）句子真实记忆随着年龄增长而增加;句子错误记忆存在发展性逆转现象,初中二年级到高中二年级是句子错误记忆发展相对迅速的阶段;（2）文本背景下,不同的精加工推理诱发了不同程度的句子错误记忆,这种精加工推理效应与一般世界知识的自上而下激活的程度有关。     

Neuroanatomy of childhood disruptive behavior disorders

Our aims were to (1) examine possible neuroanatomical abnormalities associated with the Disruptive Behavior Disorders (DBDs) as a group and (2) assess neuroanatomical anomalies specific to each DBD (i.e., conduct disorder [CD] and oppositional defiant disorder). Cortical thickness analysis and voxel-based morphometry were analyzed in 47 8-year-old boys (22 DBDs with and without CD and/or ODD and 25 healthy controls) from Magnetic Resonance Imaging brain scans. DBD symptoms were assessed using the Dominic-R. In DBD subjects relative to controls, we found (1) a decreased overall mean cortical thickness; (2) thinning of the cingulate, prefrontal and insular cortices; and (3) decreased gray matter density (GMd) in the same brain regions. We also found that scores on the Dominic-R were negatively correlated with GMd in the prefrontal and precuneus/superior temporal regions. There was a subdiagnostic main effect for CD, related to thinning of the middle/medial frontal, and for ODD in the left rectal/orbitofrontal. Findings suggest that thinning and decreased GMd of the insula disorganizes prefrontal circuits, diminishing the inhibitory influence of the prefrontal cortex on anger, aggression, cruelty, and impulsivity, and increasing a person's likelihood of aggressive behavior. These findings have implications for pathophysiologic models of the DBDs, their diagnostic classification system, and for designing more effective intervention programs.