齐鲁古典戏曲溯源及山东元杂剧兴盛初探——齐鲁古典戏曲述略之一

任何一种文学现象的出现,既要有长期发展的历史积淀,也要有那个时代所提供的政治、经济和文化等基本的社会条件。元代山东能成为杂剧艺术的兴盛之地亦是如此。文章考略了齐鲁古典戏曲的渊源,就山东元杂剧兴盛的原因作了较为全面、系统地探寻,并概述了其主要的表现及影响。     

Play aggression among zapotec children: Implications for the practice hypothesis

This study evaluates a prominent functional explanation for play aggression, the practice hypothesis, employing data from a non-Western culture, the Zapotec of Oaxaca, Mexico. The practice hypothesis proposes that play aggression, sometimes called rough-and-tumble play, has evolved primarily as a “safe” way for young individuals to practice and perfect adult fighting and/or hunting skills. Ethological observations of 3–8-year-old Zapotec children (n = 48) form the basis for investigating serious and play aggression, and for evaluating predictions stemming from the practice hypothesis. Play aggression in Zapotec children is superficially similar to real aggression, but can be differentiated from aggression in a number of ways, such as by facial expression, nature of outcomes, and amount of behavioral variability. Rates of play aggression were not significantly different between Zapotec boys and girls; however, mixed-sex dyads during play aggression occurred less often than same-sex dyads. Play partners were closer in age than chance would predict, with initiators tending to be slightly older than recipients, except when boys initiated play aggression toward girls. Injuries during play aggression occurred very infrequently (in about 1% of the episodes), and children were more likely to stay together following play than following serious aggression. The Zapotec data are discussed in relation to predictions regarding play partner choice, sex differences, the overall nature (design) of play aggression (in relation to Zapotec adult aggression), as well as in relation to phylogenetic and cross-cultural considerations. It is concluded that most of the findings are consistent with the practice hypothesis. It is also suggested that because play and serious aggression can be distinguished and apparently stem from different underlying motivations, these behavioral patterns not be confounded as is sometimes done in observational studies of children's aggression.     

合作与竞争不同情境下的自我参照效应

为了探究合作与竞争行为及其不同的行为结果对自我参照效应的影响,采用三个实验：实验一让被试阅读合作或竞争故事,测量其自我参照效应,结果发现,阅读竞争故事的被试表现出明显的自我参照效应,而阅读合作故事的被试表现出了他人参照效应;实验二让被试完成真实的合作或竞争游戏,结果发现,完成竞争游戏的被试表现出明显的自我参照效应,而完成合作游戏的被试没有表现出自我参照效应;实验三操作合作或竞争游戏的结果(成功或失败),结果发现,不论是合作行为还是竞争行为,被试在失败的结果下表现出的自我参照效应比成功时更明显。整个研究表明,人际间的行为互动模式(合作或竞争)及其行为结果(成功或失败)对自我参照效应有一定的影响。     

Play fighting and the development of agonistic behavior in male and female rats

Two longitudinal studies were conducted to quantify the social behaviors exhibited by both male and female Long-Evans rats from the immediate postweaning period until young adulthood. In Experiment 1, male sibling pairs engaged in a high level of play fighting during the early juvenile period but such activity declined to a level significantly lower than that of female and mixed-sex pairs after 54 days of age. In Experiment 2, social exchanges during maturation were examined during the presence and absence of the piloerection response in an effort to distinguish play fighting from agonistic interactions. In male pairs, piloerection was rarely seen before 55–75 days of age but thereafter occurred with increasing frequency especially among dominant males. Furthermore, subordinate males retreated from their dominant partners and remained in an escape chamber for a significant amount of time only during encounters involving the exhibition of piloerection. This finding suggests that piloerection can be useful in identifying play and aggressive interactions. In female and heterosexual pairs, piloerection was observed infrequently during social encounters occurring throughout maturation. In addition, when given the opportunity to escape, females were less likely to retreat from play activity if their partner was another female than a male.     

Angry reactions to failure on a cooperative computer game: The effect of trait hostility,behavioural inhibition,and behavioural activation

This study describes the use of a “cooperative” computer game in which the subject has to follow directions, supposedly sent from a partner, and steer a tank to avoid invisible mines. The tank is lost if it hits a mine or does not reach base within a set time limit. The game was designed so that the majority of trials would be lost. Affective (mood self-ratings), cognitive (attribution of blame questionnaire), and behavioural (feedback sent to the “partner”) outcomes were assessed. The game significantly increased ratings of discontentedness and anger. Self-blame for task failure was correlated with the Guilt subscale of the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI), and blaming the partner was correlated positively with the Motor Aggression subscale and negatively with the empathy scale of the I7, supporting the notion of hostile attributional bias in adults. The importance of individual differences in the strength of the behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and behavioural activation system (BAS) were explored using the BIS/BAS scales developed by Carver and White [1994]. Sending negative feedback to the partner was negatively correlated with scores on the BIS. Scores on BAS drive were positively correlated with increases in discontentedness and with sending negative feedback on trials when the tank was lost due to lack of time. These results are discussed in relation to Berkowitz's [1993] model of affective aggression. Aggr. Behav. 24:27–36, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Infants' attention to an adult's demonstration of object functions: evidence for a comparator process

The present study was motivated by a concern with the cognitive processes that infants bring to bear on stimulation offered by adults. As previous studies have highlighted the importance of parental stimulation with objects, this study consisted of an experimental investigation of this context of stimulation. It was hypothesized that adults' actions that demonstrate the functions of toys activate a comparator process in 9-month-old infants. It was predicted that prior exposure to the toy in a stationary state would increase attention to a demonstrative action, as the comparator process requires time over and above the local processing of an event. This prediction was borne out: 9-month-olds infants' attention to the demonstration of the functions of a toy was augmented by immediate prior exposure to the toy in a stationary state. By contrast, attention to other actions which did not demonstrate specific functions was either significantly reduced by prior exposure to the toy, or unaffected. Moreover, 16-month-olds who are better able to perform a broad range of actions with objects, did not show increased attention to a demonstration of functions when prior exposure to the toy was provided. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Academic performance,prejudice, and the jigsaw classroom: new pieces to the puzzle

This field study investigated the effects of a cooperative learning environment and a Jigsaw classroom environment on academic performance, self-esteem, liking of school, liking of peers, and racial prejudice. The subjects were 103 children in Grades 4–6, in two separate schools. The cooperative learning condition was used as a baseline measure of the effects of cooperation, against which the effects of a Jigsaw method, involving both cooperation and interdependence, were compared. The results reveal that Jigsaw produced significant improvements on measures of academic performance, liking of peers, and racial prejudice. In contrast, the effect of the cooperative condition was to exacerbate pre-existing intergroup tensions. The present findings demonstrate that the Jigsaw method can be applied successfully in Australian conditions, and lend support to Allport's contact hypothesis. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

9-16岁儿童的合作倾向与合作意图的发展研究

本研究采用情境故事法,对154名9-16岁儿童的合作倾向与合作意图进行了探讨。结果表明,随着年级升高,儿童的合作倾向逐渐减小,初二到高一之间是儿童的合作倾向发展的转折期,同伴关系是影响儿童合作倾向的稳定因素;儿童的合作意图随年龄增长日趋复杂和分化,维系良好的同伴关系的意图随年龄增长变化不大,自利意图逐渐减弱,利他意图逐渐增强。     

Dominance and age-related changes in the play fighting of intact and post-weaning castrated male rats (Rattus norvegicus)

The play fighting behaviour of male rats (Rattus norvegicus) castrated at weaning was compared to that of intact controls during the juvenile and post-pubertal phases of development. Following puberty, both the castrated and intact animals exhibited an age-related change in their play fighting; the frequency of initiating play fighting decreased and juvenile patterns of playful defense were replaced by more adult-like patterns. As these changes occurred even in the absence of the pubertal surge of gonadal hormones, they were more likely to result from the organizational effects of gonadal hormones in the perinatal period than the activational effects of these hormones at puberty. Although the castrated animals exhibited the age-related changes in behaviour, they did not exhibit the asymmetries in play associated with dominance relationships. As demonstrated in previous studies, in pairs of intact rats, the animal that attacks the most and uses more juvenile defenses during play fighting and weighs the least is typically the subordinate. In the castrates, asymmetries in weight and playful defense are not related to play frequency, indicating the absence of a dominance relationship. Although the characteristic changes in male play fighting at puberty are independent of the activational effects of gonadal hormones, dominance relationships and their associated changes in play fighting are dependent on these hormones. Therefore, in the perinatal period gonadal hormones most likely organize the age-related changes in play behaviour, whereas post-pubertally gonadal hormones activate dominance relationships and thus, indirectly modify play fighting by affecting dominance-associated assymetries in behaviour. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.