Associative symmetry in the pigeon after successive matching-to-sample training

If an organism is explicitly taught an A→B association, then might it also spontaneously learn the symmetrical B→A association? Little evidence attests to such “associative symmetry” in nonhuman animals. We report for the first time a clear case of associative symmetry in the pigeon. Experiment 1 used a successive go/no go matching‐to‐sample procedure, which showed all of the training and testing stimuli in one location and intermixed arbitrary and identity matching trials. We found symmetrical responding that was as robust during testing (B→A) as during training (A→B). In Experiment 2, we trained different pigeons using only arbitrary matching trials before symmetry testing. No symmetrical responding was found. In Experiment 3, we trained other pigeons with only arbitrary matching trials and then tested for symmetry. When these pigeons, too, did not exhibit symmetrical responding, we retrained them with intermixed identity and arbitrary matching trials. Less robust symmetrical responding was obtained here than in Experiment 1. Collectively, these results suggest that identity matching may have to be learned concurrently with arbitrary matching from the outset of training for symmetry to emerge.     

Stability of functional equivalence and stimulus equivalence: effects of baseline reversals

Functional equivalence and stimulus equivalence classes were established, reversed, and tested for stability with college students. Functional stimulus classes were established using a task in which students were trained to say nonsense words in the presence of arbitrarily assigned sets of symbols. Computer-controlled speech-recognition technology was used to record and analyze students' vocal responses for accuracy. After the establishment of stimulus classes was demonstrated with a transfer-of-function test, the effects of reversing selected baseline simple discriminations were assessed during an additional transfer-of-function test and a follow-up test that occurred several weeks later. With the same students, stimulus equivalence classes were established and demonstrated with computerized matching-to-sample procedures. The effects of reversing selected baseline conditional discriminations also were assessed during a postreversal equivalence test and a follow-up test. Both functional stimulus classes and stimulus equivalence were sensitive to contingency reversals, but the reversals with stimulus equivalence closses affected stimulus class organization whereas reversals with functional stimulus classes did not. Follow-up performances were largely consistent with the original baseline contingencies. The similarities and differences between stimulus equivalence and functional equivalence are related to the specific contingencies that select responding in the presence of the stimuli that form the classes.     

Contextual control of stimulus generalization and stimulus equivalence in hierarchical categorization

The purpose of this study was to determine whether hierarchical categorization would result from a combination of contextually controlled conditional discrimination training, stimulus generalization, and stimulus equivalence. First, differential selection responses to a specific stimulus feature were brought under contextual control. This contextual control was hierarchical in that stimuli at the top of the hierarchy all evoked one response, whereas those at the bottom each evoked different responses. The evocative functions of these stimuli generalized in predictable ways along a dimension of physical similarity. Then, these functions were indirectly acquired by a set of nonsense syllables that were related via transitivity relations to the originally trained stimuli. These nonsense syllables effectively served as names for the different stimulus classes within each level of the hierarchy.     

Psychometric Properties of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory, the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents, the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale, and the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale in an Adolescent Spanish-Speaking Sample

The relationship among several social anxiety measures and a semistructured interview in an adolescent Spanish-speaking sample is examined. Construct validity and test-retest reliability were tested. A principal axis factor analysis was also explored. Results revealed good construct validity and alpha coefficients for the assessment instruments such as the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI), the Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A), the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNES) and the Social Avoidance Distress Scale (SADS). Among these, data strongly support the validity of the Social Phobia and Difference measures of the SPAI and Total SAS-A score as assessment measures in the adolescent population even in non-American cultures and languages. Furthermore, results appear to support the presence of a single higher-order dimension, social anxiety, as measured by the instruments used in this study.     

Challenges in the conceptualization of trait self-control as a psychological construct

Self-control is widely believed to be a valuable characteristic that contributes to leading a healthy, happy, and successful life through the effective pursuit of long-term goals. Yet, despite a prolific literature spanning decades, essential questions about the conceptual nature of trait self-control remain unanswered. Substantially different perspectives on the theoretical nature of (trait) self-control coexist side by side. We briefly review prominent views informing what trait self-control as a psychological construct is. On this basis, we identify four conceptual challenges that we think the field should address moving forward: (a) integrating theoretical notions, (b) addressing variability in individual goals, (c) acknowledging variability in dominant responses, and (d) anchoring trait self-control in a nomological network. We highlight why addressing these challenges is crucial for gaining a deeper understanding of trait self-control. We also suggest how theoretical conceptualizations of trait self-control might do so and the implications this would bear for measurement and interventions.     

Derived relational responding as generalized operant behavior

The major aim of the present study was to demonstrate that derived relational responding may be viewed as a form of generalized operant behavior. In Experiment 1, 4 subjects were divided into two conditions (2 in each condition). Using a two-comparison matching-to-sample procedure, all subjects were trained and tested for the formation of two combinatorially entailed relations. Subjects were trained and tested across multiple stimulus sets. Each set was composed of novel stimuli. Both Conditions 1 and 2 involved explicit performance-contingent feedback presented at the end of each block of test trials (i.e., delayed feedback). In Condition 1, feedback was accurate (consistent with the experimenter-designated relations) following exposure to the initial stimulus sets. When subjects' responding reached a predefined mastery criterion, the feedback then switched to inaccurate (not consistent with the experimenter-designated relations) until responding once again reached a predefined criterion. Condition 2 was similar to Condition 1, except that exposure to the initial stimulus sets was followed by inaccurate feedback and once the criterion was reached feedback switched to accurate. Once relational responding emerged and stabilized, response patterns on novel stimulus sets were controlled by the feedback delivered for previous stimulus sets. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1, except that during Conditions 3 and 4 four comparison stimuli were employed during training and testing. Experiment 3 was similar to Condition 1 of Experiment 1, except that after the mastery criterion was reached for class-consistent responding, feedback alternated from accurate to inaccurate across each successive stimulus set. Experiment 4 involved two types of feedback, one type following tests for mutual entailment and the other type following tests for combinatorial entailment. Results from this experiment demonstrated that mutual and combinatorial entailment may be controlled independently by accurate and inaccurate feedback. Overall, the data support the suggestion, made by relational frame theory, that derived relational responding is a form of generalized operant behavior.     

Development and validation of Swedish classical and modern sexism scales

In two studies we develop and validate a Classical--overt or direct--and a Modern--covert or subtle--Sexism Scale concerning attitudes toward women, for a Swedish (Scandinavian) context. Further, we examine whether these two forms of prejudice are distinguishable. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that, although highly correlated, classical and modern sexism are distinguishable. The construct validations showed that men had higher means on modern and classical sexism scores than women, and that our scales were related to other constructs as expected. In a third study, we analyzed the knowledge and the content of cultural stereotypes about women. There were no differences in the knowledge of cultural stereotypes between men and women or between high- and low-sexist individuals. The findings are discussed in relation to previous international studies that examine people's modern and/or classical sexism.     

Factorial Structure of the Family Values Scale From a Multilevel-Multicultural Perspective

In cross-cultural research, there is a tendency for researchers to draw inferences at the country level based on individual-level data. Such action implicitly and often mistakenly assumes that both the measuring instrument and its underlying construct(s) are operating equivalently across both levels. Based on responses from 5,482 college students sampled from 27 countries, we took a structural equation modeling approach to addressing this issue of level equivalence. Purposes of the study were: (a) to validate the hypothesized two-factor structure of the Family Values Scale (FV Scale; Georgas, 1999) within a multilevel framework that took individual- and country-level information into account; (b) to test equivalence of the FV Scale across individual and country levels; and (c) to evaluate relations between the FV Scale and three possibly important covariates—gender at the individual level, and affluence and religion at the country level. Implications of findings and importance of multilevel equivalence in cross-cultural research are discussed.