The virtues of epistemic conservatism

Although several important methodologies implicitly assume the truth of epistemic conservatism, the view that holding a belief confers some measure of justification on the belief, recent criticisms have led some to conclude that epistemic conservatism is an implausible view. That conclusion is mistaken. In this article, I propose a new formulation of epistemic conservatism that is not susceptible to the criticisms leveled at earlier formulations of epistemic conservatism. In addition to withstanding these criticisms, this formulation of epistemic conservatism has several benefits. First, this formulation has the benefits of earlier formulations of epistemic conservatism, that is to say it makes sense of our intuitions about justification in regard to both memory beliefs and beliefs for which we have forgotten our evidence. Second, it provides a good way of responding to the skeptic’s challenge concerning the possibility of possessing knowledge of the external world posed by the Alternative Hypotheses argument. Third, it provides responses to both forms of a new skeptical problem plaguing basic knowledge structure theories, the Problem of Easy Knowledge formulated by Stewart Cohen. I argue that given the many benefits of this formulation of epistemic conservatism and the fact that it is not vulnerable to the criticisms that undermine earlier formulations of epistemic conservatism, this formulation of epistemic conservatism is a plausible view to maintain.     

ANIMALIA,HOMO, AND THE KINGDOM OF GOD

Abstract. I selectively and critically review the state of knowledge about human evolution and the place of humans vis‐à‐vis living apes, with emphasis on bipedal posture and locomotion, expansion of the brain and associated cognitive capacities, speech, tool behavior, culture, and society. I end with a personal perspective on God and Heaven.     

类皮亚杰数量守恒任务中的负启动效应

采用负启动研究范式,考察九岁儿童在类皮亚杰数量守恒任务中的负启动效应。实验一重复了Houdé等人的实验过程,发现我国儿童在解决类皮亚杰数量守恒任务中也存在负启动效应,负启动量为310.9ms;实验二改进了Houdé等人研究的实验材料,排除实验材料形状的干扰,发现依然存在负启动效应,负启动量为200.04ms。实验结果表明,成功完成类皮亚杰数量守恒任务需要认知抑制过程的参与。     

A self-instructional manual for installing low-cost/no-cost weatherization materials: Experimental validation with scouts

In this study, we describe the development and evaluation of a self-instructional program for installing 10 low-cost/no-cost weatherization materials (e.g., weatherstripping, caulking). This program was a weatherization and retrofit manual (WARM) providing step-by-step instructions and illustrations. Boy and Girl Scouts participated and used either the WARM or existing product instructions (EPI) to apply the materials. Scouts installed the materials properly only when they used the WARM.     

A behavioral analysis of peaking in residential electrical-energy consumers

This study was concerned with "peaking", which is the tendency for electrical-energy users to consume at high rates for brief periods during the day. Peaking results in the inefficient use of generating facilities, which may lead to unfavorable effects on the environment, such as the construction of new energy producing facilities or the activation of older, less safe, generating units. A continuous data collection system to monitor consumption of electrical energy was installed in the homes of three volunteer families. Information, feedback, and incentives were evaluated for their effects on peak energy consumption. A combination of feedback plus incentives was most effective and reduced peaking about 50%. Removal of experimental treatments resulted in a return to pre-treatment patterns of consumption.     

Lick-trading by rats: on the substitutability of dry, water, and saccharin tubes.

Thirsty rats licked two metal tubes: a water tube paired with another water tube, with saccharin, or with a dry tube. For each pair, a multipoint baseline function was measured by offering free access to one tube throughout each session, and free or restricted access to the other. The three resulting baseline functions showed the members of each pair to be mutual substitutes: When access to either tube was restricted, the rats made more licks at the other. A linear function identified the two water tubes as perfect substitutes. Convex functions identified the members of the saccharin-water and the dry-water pair as imperfect substitutes. Each pair was also tested under several reciprocal fixed-ratio schedules that required instrumental licking of either tube for contingent access to the other. The resulting schedule functions showed the members of each pair to be perfect substitutes: Water licks decreased linearly as licks at the other water tube, the saccharin, or the dry tube increased, in agreement with a conservation model of instrumental performance. Baseline and schedule functions, indistinguishable in the water-water pair, indicated a schedule facilitation of dry-tube licking in the dry-water pair and of water-tube licking in the saccharin-water pair.     

Conservation, choice, and the concurrent fixed-ratio schedule

Five rats got all of their water in daily 60-minute sessions. Two levers and a water spout were freely available throughout baseline sessions. Contingency sessions offered a choice between two alternative fixed-ratio components, in the form of a choice between the two levers. Each component required a specified number of lever presses for access to the spout, and then a specified number of licks for another choice between components. Given the observed relative frequency, the absolute frequency of selecting each component was predicted accurately by assuming that the subject conserved between baseline and contingency the total amount of a dimension attributable to lever pressing and licking. Several quantitative models for predicting relative frequency were examined. The best of these assumed that the subject would show a nonexclusive preference for the component requiring fewer lever presses.     

A company-based lottery to reduce the personal driving of employees

A company-based lottery was used to reduce the number of nonessential miles employees drove their personal cars each day and thereby save gasoline. Employees were divided into an experimental and a contrast group. The experimental design involved two conditions: (a) a baseline in which no consequences were attached to driving behavior, and (b) a month-long lottery in which the experimentals were rewarded for decreasing their percentage of average miles driven per day relative to their initial baseline average. The experimentals received an ABA order of conditions while the contrast group remained in baseline. The lottery condition consisted of four weekly lotteries and one grand drawing held at the end of the month. During the lottery condition, the experimentals reduced their average daily mileage by 11.6% relative to their initial baseline (7.85 miles per employee per day) while the contrast employees increased their average mileage by 21.2%. Both groups exceeded their initial baseline averages in the return to baseline. The study was almost cost-effective because the experimentals' gas savings ($75) was within $4 of the cost of motivating them to reduce their mileage ($79).     

“赋能”还是“负担”?领导者授权行为对员工工作行为影响的双刃剑效应探究

在数字化经济迅速发展的时代, 领导者授权行为是一种激励员工的重要措施。然而, 以往关于领导者授权行为有效性的研究存在不一致发现。为了更深入地探讨领导者授权行为对员工的影响, 基于资源保存理论, 系统地构建了领导者授权行为对员工的“双刃剑”影响机制。具体而言, 第一, 基于资源视角, 将授权视为领导者为员工提供的资源, 深入分析领导者授权行为产生的“赋能”过程机制和“负担”过程机制, 并提出员工的调节定向是影响“双刃剑”机制的边界条件; 第二, 从动态角度看待领导者授权行为, 探讨领导者每日授权行为和领导者授权行为的日波动对员工的“双刃剑”影响机制; 第三, 从动态角度看待领导者授权行为所发生的组织情景。探讨相对动态的情景, 即工作事件, 对领导者授权行为“双刃剑”机制的影响。通过结合静态和动态的双重视角, 系统地探讨了领导者授权行为对员工的“双刃剑”影响机制, 具有一定的理论和实践意义。     

The Role of Life Stress and Social Support in the Adjustment of Sexually Victimized Pregnant and Parenting Minority Adolescents

Associations among sexual victimization and the psychosocial functioning of African American and Latina pregnant and parenting adolescents were examined. Forty-seven (17.7%) of the 265 participants reported histories of sexual victimization, most of which was unwanted sexual intercourse. The victimized adolescents reported higher levels of depression, anxiety, and life stress and, although the two groups reported no differences in their levels of social support, support was found to be differentially related to depression and anxiety in the two groups. In particular, victims derived benefits from social support at low levels of stress, but social support provided no protection against depression and anxiety at average or high levels of stress. For nonvictims, social support provided no benefits at low levels of stress, but protected against depression and anxiety at moderate levels of stress and against depression at high levels of stress. Implications of these findings for research, theory, and intervention are discussed.