A quantitative analysis of sensitivity to the conditioned reinforcing value of terminal-link stimuli in a concurrent-chains schedule.

Pigeons were exposed to a concurrent-chains schedule in which a single variable-interval 30-s schedule was used in the initial links and fixed-time schedules were used in the terminal links. Three types of keylight conditions were used in the terminal links. In the first condition, different delays were associated with different keylight stimuli (cued condition). In the second condition, different delays were associated with the same stimulus, either a blackout (uncued blackout condition) or a white key (uncued white condition). Paired values of terminal-link fixed-time schedules differed by a constant ratio of 3:1, while the absolute value of delays was varied from 3 s to 54 s. The results showed that choice proportions for the shorter of two delays increased when the absolute size of the delays was increased for all keylight conditions. Further, the choice proportions for the shorter delay increased from the uncued blackout condition, to the uncued white condition, to the cued condition. A modified version of Fantino's (1969) delay-reduction model (expressed as a function relating the response ratio to the delay-reduction ratio) can be applied to these data by showing that sensitivity to delay reduction increased from the uncued blackout condition, to the uncued white condition, to the cued condition. Thus, the present study demonstrated that a modified version of the delay-reduction model can be used to assess quantitative differences in the terminal-link keylight condition in terms of sensitivity to delay reduction (i.e., the conditioned reinforcing value of the terminal-link keylight stimuli).     

Choice: A local analysis

Analyses of free-operant choice usually employ one of two general procedures: the simple concurrent procedure (i.e., a concurrent variable-interval variable-interval schedule) or the concurrent-chains procedure (i.e., concurrently available initial links, each leading to an exclusively available terminal link). Theories about choice usually focus on only one of the two procedures. For example, maximization theories, which assert that behavior is distributed between two alternatives in such a way that overall rate of reinforcement is maximized, have been applied only to the simple concurrent procedure. In the present paper, a form of the pairing hypothesis (according to which pairings between one stimulus and another affect the value of the first, and pairings between responses and reinforcers affect the value of the former) is developed in a way that allows it to make qualitative predictions with regard to choice in a variety of simple concurrent and concurrent-chains procedures. The predictions include matching on concurrent variable-interval variable-interval schedules, preference reversal in the self-control paradigm, and preference for tandem over chained terminal links.     

析其数之理,赏其序之美--今本《周易》卦序排列数学规律再探

今本《周易》卦序是一篇精美绝伦的古典作品,其思想之深刻耐人寻味,其数理之精妙绝无仅有,其设计之完美令人叹为观止。《序卦》卦序的排列蕴含多重数理原则,本文将对一阴五阳卦分布律、二阳四阴卦分布律、三阴三阳卦分布律进行更精密地刻画以期对其认识更臻完善。而十二辟卦分布律、上经十八卦容斥律和下经十八卦容斥律的发现,更使我们有理由相信,《序卦》卦序是古人高超的数学才华的集中体现,是一件隐身数千年的数学极品。     

A practical variation of a multiple-schedule procedure: brief schedule-correlated stimuli

Multiple schedules using continuous discriminative stimuli have been used to minimize children's disruptive requesting for teacher attention (e.g., colored floral leis; Tiger & Hanley, 2004; Tiger, Hanley, & Heal, 2006). The present study evaluated the effectiveness of, and children's preferences for, two multiple-schedule arrangements in which brief experimenter vocalizations served as discriminative stimuli. Results showed that brief signals were highly effective discriminative stimuli for 3 of the 4 children, and that all children preferred one or both variations of the multiple schedule to a control arrangement. For 1 child, highly discriminated responding was achieved only when continuous signals were introduced.     

Determining individual preschoolers' preferences in a group arrangement

This study sought to determine the accuracy of an assessment format in which selection outcomes were delayed and probabilistic; these are unavoidable features of an assessment designed to determine preferences of multiple children simultaneously. During the single arrangement, preference hierarchies were established by having a child repeatedly select from among several foods and by sequentially restricting preferred items from the array. After being taught the associations between colored cards and the same food items, group assessments were conducted with 3 children simultaneously, in which each child chose a card and all children received the food correlated with a randomly selected card from those that had just been selected. The group assessment appeared to be accurate and perhaps more efficient for determining preferences; thus, we posit that this arrangement is suitable for determining context preferences of multiple children simultaneously.     

不对称关系与败德行为

败德行为与不对称关系有着内在联系。不对称关系弱化了对主体行为的约束 ,降低了败德行为的实施成本 ,从而对品性不良者选择败德行为形成激励。不对称关系是多种多样的 ,其性质和程度不同 ,败德行为发生的性质和方式也有别。在积极培育主体健全的道德意识的同时 ,通过建立一套民主化和公开化的社会机制 ,尽可能使行为主体之间形成一种对称的权力、信息、利益等关系 ,是遏制和克服败德行为 ,形成良好社会道德秩序的一个重要途径和条件。     

Effects of a history of differential reinforcement on preference for choice

The effects of a history of differential reinforcement for selecting a free-choice versus a restricted-choice stimulus arrangement on the subsequent responding of 7 undergraduates in a computer-based game of chance were examined using a concurrent-chains arrangement and a multiple-baseline-across-participants design. In the free-choice arrangement, participants selected three numbers, in any order, from an array of eight numbers presented on the computer screen. In the restricted-choice arrangement, participants selected the order of three numbers preselected from the array of eight by a computer program. In initial sessions, all participants demonstrated no consistent preference or preference for restricted choice. Differential reinforcement of free-choice selections resulted in increased preference for free choice immediately and in subsequent sessions in the absence of programmed differential outcomes. For 5 participants, changes in preference for choice were both robust and lasting, suggesting that a history of differential reinforcement for choice may affect preference for choice.     

上海博物馆竹书《内豊》与《大戴礼记》"曾子十篇"

上海博物馆竹书《内豊》具有非常宝贵的文献价值,需要进一步的研究。关于《内豊》篇,整理者对竹简的编联可取。《内豊》附简文意体现了“中庸”的思想,值得重视。以《内豊》为参照可以看出,《大戴礼记》“曾子十篇”当与曾子及其门人密切相关。     

A FURTHER ANALYSIS OF THE VALUE OF CHOICE: CONTROLLING FOR ILLUSORY DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI AND EVALUATING THE EFFECTS OF LESS PREFERRED ITEMS

We sought to address limitations of prior research that has isolated choice as an independent variable. Children's preferences for the opportunity to choose were evaluated in a concurrent‐chains arrangement in which identical consequences were available in choice and no‐choice conditions. Results demonstrated that preference for choice, in and of itself, was (a) evident in children, (b) not controlled by illusory discriminative stimuli such as the amount from which to choose, and (c) generally unaffected by less preferred and potentially unimportant consequences.