Cognitive development in object manipulation by infant chimpanzees

This study focuses on the development of spontaneous object manipulation in three infant chimpanzees during their first 2 years of life. The three infants were raised by their biological mothers who lived among a group of chimpanzees. A human tester conducted a series of cognitive tests in a triadic situation where mothers collaborated with the researcher during the testing of the infants. Four tasks were presented, taken from normative studies of cognitive development of Japanese infants: inserting objects into corresponding holes in a box, seriating nesting cups, inserting variously shaped objects into corresponding holes in a template, and stacking up wooden blocks. The mothers had already acquired skills to perform these manipulation tasks. The infants were free to observe the mothers' manipulative behavior from immediately after birth. We focused on object–object combinations that were made spontaneously by the infant chimpanzees, without providing food reinforcement for any specific behavior that the infants performed. The three main findings can be summarized as follows. First, there was precocious appearance of object–object combination in infant chimpanzees: the age of onset (8–11 months) was comparable to that in humans (around 10 months old).Second, object–object combinations in chimpanzees remained at a low frequency between 11 and 16 months, then increased dramatically at the age of approximately 1.5 years. At the same time, the accuracy of these object–object combinations also increased. Third, chimpanzee infants showed inserting behavior frequently and from an early age but they did not exhibit stacking behavior during their first 2 years of life, in clear contrast to human data.     

当代社会心理学发展的双重走向论评

本文以社会心理研究的不同学科取向、文化取向和方法论取向做为三条主要线索,对当代社会心理学发展的多元化道路和整合社会心理学的努力进行了分析评价。认为社会心理学发展的多元化道路主要是由于社会心理的多质性和社会心理学的边缘学科性质所决定的,社今心理学发展过程中的整合努力则主要是由于社会心理的整体性和社会心理学的学科统一性所决定的。分化与整合作为当代社会心理学研究和发展的一对予盾统一体,伴随了社会心理学发展的百年进程,推动着当代社会心理学新的发展。     

A case of extreme simplicity of the core matrix in three-mode principal components analysis

In three-mode Principal Components Analysis, theP ×Q ×R core matrixG can be transformed to simple structure before it is interpreted. It is well-known that, whenP=QR,G can be transformed to the identity matrix, which implies that all elements become equal to values specified a priori. In the present paper it is shown that, whenP=QR − 1,G can be transformed to have nearly all elements equal to values spectified a priori. A cllsed-form solution for this transformation is offered. Theoretical and practical implications of this simple structure transformation ofG are discussed. Constructive comments from anonymous reviewers are gratefully acknowledged.     

Optimal scaling by alternating length-constrained nonnegative least squares, with application to distance-based analysis

An important feature of distance-based principal components analysis, is that the variables can be optimally transformed. For monotone spline transformation, a nonnegative least-squares problem with a length constraint has to be solved in each iteration. As an alternative algorithm to Lawson and Hanson (1974), we propose the Alternating Length-Constrained Non-Negative Least-Squares (ALC-NNLS) algorithm, which minimizes the nonnegative least-squares loss function over the parameters under a length constraint, by alternatingly minimizing over one parameter while keeping the others fixed. Several properties of the new algorithm are discussed. A Monte Carlo study is presented which shows that for most cases in distance-based principal components analysis, ALC-NNLS performs as good as the method of Lawson and Hanson or sometimes even better in terms of the quality of the solution. Supported by The Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) by grant nr. 030-56403 for the “PIONEER” project “Subject Oriented Multivariate Analysis” to the third author. We would like to thank the anonymous referees for their valuable remarks that have improved the quality of this paper.     

生存·发展·创新——对20世纪中医学发展道路的反思

为了中医学的生存和发展,中医药研究人员苦苦思索着中医学的本质,探索着中医学的现代化道路。目前中医学在研究思路和方法上仍存在一些问题,因此回顾和总结现代中医学及中西医结合医学的发展状况,有利于我们认清中医学的发展形势,发现其中存在的问题,寻求解决问题的方法。     

Stacking of blocks by chimpanzees: developmental processes and physical understanding

The stacking-block task has been used to assess cognitive development in both humans and chimpanzees. The present study reports three aspects of stacking behavior in chimpanzees: spontaneous development, acquisition process following training, and physical understanding assessed through a cylindrical-block task. Over 3 years of longitudinal observation of block manipulation, one of three infant chimpanzees spontaneously started to stack up cubic blocks at the age of 2 years and 7 months. The other two infants began stacking up blocks at 3 years and 1 month, although only after the introduction of training by a human tester who rewarded stacking behavior. Cylindrical blocks were then introduced to assess physical understanding in object-object combinations in three infant (aged 3-4) and three adult chimpanzees. The flat surfaces of cylinders are suitable for stacking, while the rounded surface is not. Block manipulation was described using sequential codes and analyzed focusing on failure, cause, and solution in the task. Three of the six subjects (one infant and two adults) stacked up cylindrical blocks efficiently: frequently changing the cylinders' orientation without contacting the round side to other blocks. Rich experience in stacking cubes may facilitate subjects' stacking of novel, cylindrical shapes from the beginning. The other three subjects were less efficient in stacking cylinders and used variable strategies to achieve the goal. Nevertheless, they began to learn the effective way of stacking over the course of testing, after about 15 sessions (75 trials).     

儒家和兵家治道思想的整合及其历史影响--从"儒兵家"看<十一家注孙子>

《十一家注孙子》汇集了自魏武帝曹操至北宋张预等11家对于《孙子》的注解。关于治国之道，孙子与儒家的思想多有相通之处，同时又各有侧重、各有特点。11位注家在注释《孙子》过程中，既阐发了孙子的原意，又融合了诸多儒家的思想观念，体现出“以儒释兵”、“兵儒整合”的思想倾向。这种思想倾向虽早已有之，但《十一家注孙子》的形成无疑又加强了这种倾向，它对历史上儒兵家的形成也有一定影响。     

Assessment of Anger Terms in Hebrew: A Gender Comparison

Appraisal of anger terms is based on past experience recollections, social norms, and gender roles. The objectives of this study were to find combinations of emotional components presented by a new composite variable that will exhibit differences between genders and differentiate between anger terms in Hebrew. The sample was comprised of forty students, Hebrew native speakers who participated in a web based study. Participants were asked to rate eight anger terms in Hebrew on a number of features that comprised five emotional components: subjective feelings states body reactions, expressions, action tendencies, and cognitive evaluations. A two-factor between-subjects multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted. A simplified multivariate composite, defined as subjective experience minus regulation, explained 10% of the gender difference. Another simplified composite, which combines the additive effect of the subjective experience and the actions that accompany this emotional state, explained 14% of difference between the anger terms. The findings are discussed with respect to appraisal theory and social constructivist conceptualization.     

医学人文精神和医学科学精神的融通

医学人文精神和医学科学精神都是人类医学必不可少的内在组成部分,要达到两者的融通与共建,其前提便是在对医学人文和医学科学的全面理解中塑造当代医学精神,促进医学人文精神与医学科学精神的健康互动与协调发展。     

Identity From Variation: Representations of Faces Derived From Multiple Instances

Research in face recognition has tended to focus on discriminating between individuals, or “telling people apart.” It has recently become clear that it is also necessary to understand how images of the same person can vary, or “telling people together.” Learning a new face, and tracking its representation as it changes from unfamiliar to familiar, involves an abstraction of the variability in different images of that person's face. Here, we present an application of principal components analysis computed across different photos of the same person. We demonstrate that people vary in systematic ways, and that this variability is idiosyncratic—the dimensions of variability in one face do not generalize well to another. Learning a new face therefore entails learning how that face varies. We present evidence for this proposal and suggest that it provides an explanation for various effects in face recognition. We conclude by making a number of testable predictions derived from this framework.