西方社会价值取向的研究历程与发展趋势

作为一种相对稳定的人格特质,社会价值取向指个体对于自己和他人结果分配的特定偏好。西方社会价值取向的研究经历了从双维模型到整合模型的发展。这些研究证实了实验室情境以及现实情境下社会价值取向对个体的行为决策和社会认知的影响。人际取向命题的提出是该领域的最新理论进展,情境因素和平等取向在未来研究中将得到更多的关注     

Cooperation and coordination across cultures and contexts: Individual,sociocultural, and contextual factors jointly influence decision making in the volunteer's dilemma game

What factors promote or hinder volunteering within organizations and groups? This paper simultaneously explores the impact of individual, contextual, and sociocultural variables on decision making in a special type of social dilemma: the volunteer's dilemma game (VDG). The VDG provides a controlled experimental method for studying volunteering behaviors in an anonymous interactive environment. We developed six variations of the VDG and administered them to economics students in five different cultures (N_total = 603). Among other things, these VDGs varied whether the potential benefits of volunteering were certain or uncertain. Although the overall level of volunteering did not vary substantially across most cultural groups, we found that culture interacted with the size and (un)certainty of the benefits associated with volunteering, to influence volunteering decisions. We also found that religiosity (but not religious affiliation per se) increases volunteering and that men are less likely to volunteer when the returns to doing so are certain. These results extend our knowledge of behaviors in the VDG, and their potential drivers, with clear implications for understanding how culture, individual characteristics, and context jointly influence prosocial behavior and coordination.     

护士道德勇气研究进展

当护士拥有道德勇气时能履行对病人的道德责任等多种作用。本文对国内外护士道德勇气的研究进行梳理,列举了中西方学者对于道德勇气概念的定义,并且从质性和量性研究两方面分析护士道德勇气的研究现况,总结了人口学因素、组织伦理氛围、道德困境、道德敏感性与道德韧性等影响护士道德勇气的相关因素。本文有助于更全面的理解这一护士美德,未来可通过结合中国国情进一步探索并构建干预方案以提高护士的道德勇气,保障患者享受高质量护理。

     

儿童临终关怀社会工作伦理困境、成因及其突破

基于对武汉市Y医院5名医务社会工作者的深度访谈,揭示了我国儿童临终关怀社会工作伦理困境的现实表征,包括专业价值与传统文化间的冲突、患儿主体权与家长主义间的冲突、有限医疗资源与案主需求间的冲突等方面的伦理之争。分析可知上述伦理困境源于复杂实践情境中价值观的多元性、伦理依据的多重性、患儿群体的特殊性。并提出儿童临终关怀社会工作伦理困境的突破之道在于从价值共存、主体意识、政策引领三个方面出发,树立本土伦理实践守则、提升全民理性生命意识、完善服务支持与政策体系,从整体上促进我国儿童临终关怀社会工作事业的发展。

     

Commitment and self-control in a prisoner's dilemma game

Humans often make seemingly irrational choices in situations of conflict between a particular smaller-sooner reinforcer and a more abstract, temporally extended, but larger reinforcer. In two experiments, the extent to which the availability of commitment responses-self-imposed restrictions on future choices-might improve self-control in such situations was investigated. Participants played a prisoner's dilemma game against a computer that played a tit-for-tat strategy-cooperating after a participant cooperated, defecting after a participant defected. Defecting produced a small-immediate reinforcer (consisting of points convertible to gift cards) whereas cooperating increased the amount of subsequent reinforcers, yielding a greater overall reinforcer rate. Participants were normally free to cooperate or defect on each trial. Additionally, they could choose to make a commitment response that forced their choice for the ensuing five trials. For some participants, the commitment response forced cooperation; for others, it forced defection. Most participants, with either commitment response available, chose to commit repeatedly despite a minor point loss for doing so. After extended exposure to these contingencies, the commit-to-cooperate group cooperated significantly more than a control group (with no commitment available). The commit-to-defect group cooperated significantly less than the control group. When both commitment alternatives were simultaneously available-one for cooperation and one for defection-cooperation commitment was strongly preferred. In Experiment 2, the commitment alternative was removed at the end of the session; gains in cooperation, relative to the control group, were not sustained in the absence of the self-imposed behavioral scaffold.     

Larger reward values alone are not enough to entice more cooperation

Two experiments using an iterated prisoner's dilemma game examined under which conditions participants' cooperation rates would either change due to monetary value changes (e.g., 3 cents to 3 dollars) or not change due to numeric value changes (e.g., 3 dollars to 300 cents). A total of 102 university students played the game against a computer that employed one of four strategies across blocks. Results showed high rates of cooperation when participants played against a tit-for-tat strategy and low rates of cooperation against a random strategy. There was no change in cooperation rates due to changes in numeric value alone and a decrease in cooperation rates when large monetary values were at stake. Cooperation rates were higher and cooperation responses slower at earlier stages of the game. I argue that people's ability to strategize plays a key role in the changing rates and speed of cooperative behaviour in the prisoner's dilemma.     

The role of autoshaping in cooperative two-player games between starlings

We report a study of the behavior of starlings in laboratory situations inspired by the “prisoner's dilemma.” Our purpose is to investigate some possible mechanisms for the maintenance of cooperation by reciprocity and to investigate the process of autoshaping at a trial-by-trial level. In Experiment 1, pairs of starlings housed in adjacent cages played a discrete-trial “game” in which food could be obtained only by “cooperation.” In this game, pecking at a response key eliminated the opportunity to obtain food but produced food for the partner. If neither bird pecked, neither had the opportunity to obtain food in that trial. Some level of cooperation persisted for several sessions whether the birds had been pretrained for a high or low probability of pecking at the key. The probability of a cooperative response was higher after trials in which the partner responded (and a reward was obtained) than after trials in which neither bird responded (and no reward was obtained), but the probability of a response was even higher after trials in which the same bird had responded, even though no reward was obtained by the actor in these trials. This behavior did not require visual presence of another player, because similar results were obtained in Experiment 2 (a replicate of Experiment 1 in which the members of the pair could not see each other) and in Experiment 3, a game in which each starling played with a computer responding with “tit for tat.” Using an omission schedule, in which food was given in all trials in which the bird did not peck, Experiment 4 showed that pecking could be maintained by autoshaping. In this experiment, overall probability of pecking decreased with experience, due to a drop in the tendency to peck in consecutive trials. The probability of pecking in trials following a reinforced trial did not decrease with experience. An implementation of the Rescorla–Wagner model for this situation was capable of reproducing molar, but not molecular, aspects of our results. The results violate the predictions of several game-theoretical models for the evolution of cooperation, including tit for tat, generous tit for tat, and the superior win-stay-lose-shift.     

A Description–Experience Gap in Social Interactions: Information about Interdependence and Its Effects on Cooperation

In social interactions, decision makers are often unaware of their interdependence with others, precluding the realization of shared long‐term benefits. In an experiment, pairs of participants played an Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma under various conditions involving differing levels of interdependence information. Each pair was assigned to one of four conditions: “No‐Info” players saw their own actions and outcomes, but were not told that they interacted with another person; “Min‐Info” players knew they interacted with another person but still without seeing the other's actions or outcomes; “Mid‐Info” players discovered the other's actions and outcomes as they were revealed over time; and “Max‐Info” players were also shown a complete payoff matrix mapping actions to outcomes from the outset and throughout the game. With higher levels of interdependence information, we found increased individual cooperation and mutual cooperation, driven by increased reciprocating cooperation (in response to a counterpart's cooperation). Furthermore, joint performance and satisfaction were higher for pairs with more information. We discuss how awareness of interdependence may encourage cooperative behavior in real‐world interactions. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

重症监护病房护士道德勇气与道德困境的相关性研究

通过对824名ICU护士的调查,发现个人因素（如性别、年龄、婚姻）和职业状态（如职称、工作经验、收入）显著影响道德勇气与道德困境的关系。研究指出,道德勇气的各维度与道德困境的经历呈现出负相关,显示具有高伦理操守和承诺的护士更能在伦理挑战中保持其标准。同时,道德责任感强的护士在实际工作中更频繁遭遇道德困境。研究强调,为增强ICU护士的道德勇气,减少道德困境,医院管理层应加强指导和心理支持,推动积极的伦理环境建设。这为提高ICU护理服务质量、优化护士伦理决策提供了实证基础,对促进护理领域伦理教育和管理具有重要意义。

     

安宁疗护实践中伦理困境的探讨

在对临终患者的照护中,医务人员常会面对较多的伦理困惑。对安宁疗护实践的四个方面及其存在的伦理困境和对策进行了探讨,包括预立医疗照护计划、心肺复苏术的使用、营养支持治疗及尊严死。要减少伦理冲突的发生,除了政府需健全相关法律法规及推进预立医疗照护计划外,医务人员应具有伦理敏感性,能把安宁疗护实践中的伦理问题与患者和家属进行深入的讨论。医务人员应了解和尊重患者的需要、偏好和价值观,使患者和家属深入了解生命维持治疗的利弊,同时,鼓励家属多从对患者有益的角度做出医疗决策。