Example-based learning: New theoretical perspectives and use-inspired advances to a contemporary instructional approach

Decades of research has shown that example-based learning is an effective instructional strategy for learning new skills. The field of learning from examples is seeing a shift in focus towards more innovative and use-inspired research, in part because the use of examples for informal and formal learning purposes has mushroomed. This special issue comprises a set of eight papers in which students learned a procedural skill from worked examples or modeling examples. Each study characterizes a recent development towards more innovative example-based learning research. These developments are: (a) the integration of social-cognitive and cognitive example research, (b) the integration of example-based learning and analogical reasoning research, (c) the extension of traditional Cognitive Load Theory effects, (d) a greater focus on learning from (productive) errors, and (e) more research on individual differences. This special issue concludes with insightful commentary articles written by Prof. Dr. Katharina Scheiter and Prof. Dr. Richard Mayer.     

Neural correlates of visuospatial consciousness in 3D default space: Insights from contralateral neglect syndrome

One of the most compelling questions still unanswered in neuroscience is how consciousness arises. In this article, we examine visual processing, the parietal lobe, and contralateral neglect syndrome as a window into consciousness and how the brain functions as the mind and we introduce a mechanism for the processing of visual information and its role in consciousness. We propose that consciousness arises from integration of information from throughout the body and brain by the thalamus and that the thalamus reimages visual and other sensory information from throughout the cortex in a default three-dimensional space in the mind. We further suggest that the thalamus generates a dynamic default three-dimensional space by integrating processed information from corticothalamic feedback loops, creating an infrastructure that may form the basis of our consciousness. Further experimental evidence is needed to examine and support this hypothesis, the role of the thalamus, and to further elucidate the mechanism of consciousness.     

Cognitive testing of an instrument to evaluate acceptability and use of pre-exposure prophylaxis products among women

Given the range of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) products currently being tested to prevent HIV in women, a standardized Acceptability and Use of PrEP Products Among Women Tool may facilitate comparisons of product acceptability and use across different geographies, trials, and users. We conducted three rounds of cognitive interviewing over 2 months in 2016, with 28 South African women who had experience participating in a range of PrEP product trials. The final instrument contained 41 items, including five new items that improved construct validity and 22 items modified for clarity. Changes were made due to unclear wording, difficulty answering, participant embarrassment, low response variability, and administrative formatting. Cognitive interviewing provided a means to address issues that would have inhibited this tool's ability to accurately collect data otherwise. This rapid, low-cost study provided valuable insight into participants' understanding of questions and demonstrated the utility of cognitive interviewing in international clinical trials.     

Defending or relinquishing belief in occurrence for remembered events that are challenged: A social-cognitive model

We describe a social-cognitive model explaining processing of cognitive dissonance resulting from being told by someone that a vividly remembered event did not actually occur. The model proposes that receiving challenges to one's recollection of events results in both intrapersonal and interpersonal cognitive dissonance. Rememberers process intrapersonal dissonance by weighing features of memory representations against the qualities of the feedback, and they process interpersonal elements by weighing the potential costs of agreeing or disagreeing with the challenger within the social dynamics of the relationship. To resolve the dissonance, people will either maintain or reduce belief in occurrence for the event, and will agree or disagree with the challenger. We explore factors that can influence dissonance and how they impact the rememberers' beliefs in occurrence of the event and their interaction with challengers in terms of defending or relinquishing their memory, and we discuss preliminary data confirming some of these factors.     

Social cognitive and self-construal predictors of well-being among African college students in the US

We examined social cognitive and cultural predictors of academic satisfaction in African students studying at American universities. In addition to predictors drawn directly from the social cognitive model of work and educational well-being (Lent, 2004; Lent & Brown, 2006, 2008), self-construal was included in the predictive model as a culture-specific variable with potential relevance to academic satisfaction. Self-construal refers to the way in which one's thoughts, behaviors, and feelings are guided by one's relationship to self and others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). The findings indicated that the model, with some modification, fit the data well and accounted for 59% of the variance in academic satisfaction. The findings also suggested that the three indicators of self-construal (personal, relational, and collective) do not relate directly to academic satisfaction but rather operate through mediated pathways. Implications of the findings for research and practice are discussed.     

Extensions and Mechanisms of Mindfulness‐based Cognitive Therapy: A Review of the Evidence

Mindfulness‐based cognitive therapy (MBCT) was originally developed to prevent depressive relapse and recurrence and has also been widely extended to new patient populations and target problems over the last 14 years. We provide a comprehensive review of this literature, examining the strength of the evidence base for specific populations and target problems and identifying questions for future research to address. Specifically, we review studies addressing the use of MBCT for depressive disorders (prevention of depressive relapse and treatment of residual and current depressive symptoms), the use of MBCT in the treatment or management of other mental disorders (bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, mixed anxiety and depression symptoms, disordered eating, personality disorders, and psychosis), and the use of MBCT in behavioural medicine contexts. Additionally, we discuss the extension of MBCT during specific developmental periods, like childhood, pregnancy and post‐partum, and adult caregiving, and, finally, we address the use of MBCT among clinical health‐care providers. In the second section, we review hypothesised mechanisms of change in MBCT and reflect on implications for theories of how MBCT works in the application to various patient populations and target problems. We also consider research addressing active ingredients and what is known about the “dosage” of meditation practice. We conclude with a summary of recommendations for future research.     

Towards an Integration of Interpersonal Risk Models of Depression and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: A Commentary on What Constitutes Interpersonal Therapy

The article by Dobson, Quigley, and Dozois on interpersonal model provides a very useful guide on how to extend cognitive behavioural models of depression to incorporate interpersonal vulnerabilities that influence how depressed people behave towards others. The point is made that interpersonal processes are very likely to influence the onset and course of depression. In this commentary, I extend this analysis further examining the evidence on how interactions within close relationships, particularly couple relationships, interact with individuals' depression. Evidence is also cited on the effectiveness of couple‐based therapy in treating depression.     

Jung's views on causes and treatments of schizophrenia in light of current trends in cognitive neuroscience and psychotherapy research I. Aetiology and phenomenology

Jung's writings on schizophrenia are almost completely ignored or forgotten today. The purpose of this paper, along with a follow‐up article, is to review the primary themes found in Jung's writings on schizophrenia, and to assess the validity of his theories about the disorder in light of our current knowledge base in the fields of psychopathology, cognitive neuroscience and psychotherapy research. In this article, five themes related to the aetiology and phenomenology of schizophrenia from Jung's writings are discussed:1) abaissement du niveau mental; 2) the complex; 3) mandala imagery; 4) constellation of archetypes and 5) psychological versus toxic aetiology. Reviews of the above areas suggest three conclusions. First, in many ways, Jung's ideas on schizophrenia anticipated much current thinking and data about the disorder. Second, with the recent (re)convergence of psychological and biological approaches to understanding and treating schizophrenia, the pioneering ideas of Jung regarding the importance of both factors and their interaction remain a useful and rich, but still underutilized resource. Finally, a more concerted effort to understand and evaluate the validity of Jung's concepts in terms of evidence from neuroscience could lead both to important advances in analytical psychology and to developments in therapeutic approaches that would extend beyond the treatment of schizophrenia.