Early cognitive development and parental education

Relations between cognitive development in infancy and early childhood, and parental education were examined. Previous research has found little association between measures of the parenting environment, including parental education and socio‐economic status (SES), and cognitive development in infants and children under 2 years of age. However, the earlier studies may not have reliably measured individual differences in cognitive abilities, thus, there is uncertainty as to what age elements in the parental environment affect cognitive development. Seventy‐six infants were tested on a range of cognitive tasks at 3‐month intervals between the ages of 9 and 18 months. Information on parental education (a component of SES) was collected. Seventy‐one of the children returned at 27 months and completed the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Mental Scale, which was used as an outcome measure for the earlier tasks. The findings present a clear indication that cognitive development in early childhood is affected by the parenting environment, at least from as early as 12 months. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hormonal response to competition in human males

Changes in testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) were evaluated in males competing in a non-athletic laboratory reaction time task. Subjects were randomly assigned to “win” or “lose” by adjusting feedback regarding their task performance. Further, subjects were randomly assigned to either a Close Contest condition (where one person barely “defeated” his opponent), or a Decisive condition (in which the victory was clear). Throughout competition, samples of saliva were taken and assayed later for T and C. Post-competition mood and attributions were also measured. Winners had higher overall T levels than losers, with no significant difference between Close Contest or Decisive Victory conditions. In contrast, C levels did not differ between winners and losers nor did Condition (Close or Decisive) have any effect. Mood was depressed in Decisive losers compared to all other groups. The results indicate that the perception of winning or losing, regardless of actual performance or merit on the task, differentially influenced T (but not C) levels, and that such hormonal changes are not simply general arousal effects but are related to mood and status change.     

Assessing the Child's Cognitive Home Environment Through Parental Report; Reliability and Validity

In a series of investigations with poor minority families, we examined the reliability and validity of the StimQ, an office-based interview of children's cognitive home environment. Researchers and practitioners alike recognize the importance of assessing meaningful dimensions of children's early experiences, particularly in families where children may be at risk for later cognitive delay. To date, methodological approaches to the study of parenting have most often relied on home visits and/or labour-intensive observations and coding. Our findings suggest that valid and reliable data about the cognitive environments of poor children can be obtained through maternal report, thereby offering applied scientists a useful alternative to assessing children's early experiences. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Opium of the people? National identification predicts well-being over time

Social group membership and its social-relational corollaries, for example, social contact, trust, and support, are prophylactic for health. Research has tended to focus on how direct social interactions between members of small-scale groups (i.e., a local sports team or community group) are conducive to positive health outcomes. The current study provides evidence from a longitudinal cross-cultural sample (N = 6,748; 18 countries/societies) that the prophylactic effect of group membership is not isolated to small-scale groups, and that members of groups do not have to directly interact, or in fact know of each other to benefit from membership. Our longitudinal analyses suggest that national identification (strength of association with the country/society of which one is a citizen) predicts lower anxiety and improved health; national identification was in fact almost as positively predictive of health status as anxiety was negatively predictive. The findings indicate that identification with large-scale groups, like small-scale groups, is palliative, and are discussed in terms of globalization and banal nationalism.     

Social class and interpersonal trust: Partner's warmth,external threats and interpretations of trust betrayal

The present research investigated the effects of social class on interpersonal trust. In a series of experiments, we showed how the contextualist socio-cognitive tendencies of the lower class and the solipsistic tendencies of the upper class were reflected in their trusting attitudes and behaviors. In Study 1 (N = 491), upper class individuals expressed the same levels of trust towards all partners, while lower class individuals adjusted their trust choices to the affect-rich information about their interaction partner and trusted warm partners more than cold partners. The results of Study 2 (N = 210) showed that when threatened, lower class individuals had generally less trusting attitudes, while upper class members were equally trusting as in a neutral situation. Study 3 (N = 200) revealed that upper class individuals explained a betrayal of their trust with dispositional factors to a higher degree than lower class individuals. We discuss how these differences contribute to perpetuating the disadvantage of the lower class.     

The association between adverse childhood experiences and personality,emotions and affect: Does number and type of experiences matter?

BackgroundThere is strong evidence that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) negatively impact mental health. However, the association between ACEs and personality, emotions and affect are poorly understood. Therefore, we examined the association between composite ACE score and ACE type and personality, emotions and positive and negative affect.MethodsThree waves of data from the Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS) study were used. ACE was the primary independent correlate. Covariates included demographic variables and survey wave. Outcome variables included generativity, personality traits (agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism, openness, agency), and affect (positive, negative). Statistical analyses included 3 approaches: (1) treatment of ACE as dichotomous, (2) ordinal composite of ACE score, and (3) three individual ACE type components to assess the association between ACE and psychological constructs.ResultsOf 6323 adults in the sample, 53% were female, and 56% had a past ACE. In the adjusted analyses, dichotomized ACE was significantly associated with neuroticism (β = 0.10; 95% CI 0.07, 0.13) and conscientiousness (β = −0.03; 95% CI −0.05, −0.01). All ACE scores were significantly and positively associated with neuroticism and negatively associated with conscientiousness. Abuse was significantly associated with neuroticism (β = 0.20; 95% CI 0.16, 0.24), openness (β = 0.08; 95% CI 0.05, 0.11), conscientiousness (β = −0.05; 95% CI −0.08, −0.02), and agency (β = 0.06; 95% CI 0.02, 0.10). All ACE categories, except financial strain, were significantly associated with affect.ConclusionACEs are significantly associated with personality, emotions, and affect, with greater effect seen at higher ACE scores and with ACE abuse type, which helps support the cumulative risk hypothesis and our study hypothesis. There is a need for continued research to understand the mechanistic processes and the directionality of the association between ACEs, emotions, and behaviors to help continue to drive biopsychosocial interventions.     

The longitudinal association between social status insecurity and relational aggression: Moderation effects of social cognition about relational aggression

Previous research has shown that adolescents’ insecurity about their social status is related to their use of relational aggression. However, little is known about how adolescents’ social cognition may moderate this association. Employing a mixed-method approach and a short-term longitudinal design, this study addresses this issue by examining the moderation effects of attribution and outcome expectancies regarding relational aggression on the associations between social status insecurity and relational aggression among 476 Chinese adolescents (238 girls). The main results showed that self-serving attributions and instrumental outcome expectancies strengthened the positive and longitudinal association between social status insecurity and self-reported relational aggression. The findings of this study enrich our knowledge about the social cognitive processes pertinent to peer status and relational aggression among adolescents.     

Association of prenatal attachment and early childhood emotional,behavioral, and developmental characteristics: A longitudinal study

This study examines the associations between prenatal attachment and child development, socioemotional behavioral problems, and competence at early childhood. It also inquires whether maternal depression and anxiety at the prenatal period and at early childhood are associated with child outcomes. The study consisted of 83 mothers and their children. Data regarding the prenatal attachment, depression, and anxiety were collected during Weeks 28 to 40 of gestation. When the children were 21 to 31 months old, the Brief Infant and Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (BITSEA) and the Ankara Developmental Screening Inventory (ADSI) were applied to children along with Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) administered to mothers. Results showed that prenatal attachment scores significantly correlated with BITSEA-Competency subscale scores and ADSI total scores at early childhood, r(83) = 0.246, P = .025, and r(82) = 0.316, P = .004, respectively. Prenatal attachment levels were found to be the predictors of both behavioral and emotional competence and development at early childhood, b = 0.081, t(83) = 2.273, P = .014, and b = 0.281, t(83) = 3.225, P = .002, respectively. In addition, prenatal attachment was shown to be even a stronger predictor of development than was worsening maternal depression at early childhood, b = −0.319, t(83) = 2.140, P = .035. Our results indicate that fostering prenatal attachment may be beneficial for better infant outcomes at early childhood.     

Socioeconomic status and executive function in early childhood: Exploring proximal mechanisms

Although there is substantial evidence that socioeconomic status (SES) predicts children's executive function (EF), the mechanisms underlying this association are poorly understood. This study tested the utility of two theories proposed to link SES to children's EF: the family stress model and the family investment model. Data came from the Midwestern Infant Development Study (N = 151). To measure SES, parental education and income were assessed during pregnancy, and income was also assessed when children were 6 and 36 months old. Children's EF, operationalized as working memory/inhibitory control (WMIC) and self‐control, was assessed at 36 months of age, along with potential mediators including maternal psychological distress, harsh parenting, and cognitive stimulation. Using structural equation modeling, we tested simultaneous pathways from SES to EF: (a) via maternal psychological distress to harsh parenting (family stress model) and (b) via cognitive stimulation (family investment model). Of the SES measures, lower education predicted poorer WMIC directly and indirectly via greater maternal psychological distress. Lower education also predicted poorer self‐control via greater maternal psychological distress. This effect was partially suppressed by an indirect path from lower education to better self‐control via greater psychological distress and increased harsh parenting. Cognitive stimulation did not act as a mediator. Income was not directly or indirectly associated with EF. These findings provide partial support for the family stress model and suggest that family functioning is an important proximal mechanism for children's EF development. This study also highlights the importance of considering SES as a multidimensional construct.     

睾酮与人类攻击行为

睾酮是一种可以在男性的睾丸间质细胞、女性卵巢和胎盘的皮层细胞中合成并分泌的雄性激素, 它可以调节个体的各种生理、形态和行为过程, 对个体生存和繁殖至关重要。大量研究表明, 睾酮与社会行为的关联存在双向性, 睾酮可以调节社会行为, 社会行为可以反馈并进一步影响睾酮水平。我们将关注点聚焦于睾酮与人类攻击行为之间的关联。早期研究发现, 高睾酮水平个体表现出更高的攻击性; 近期的研究根据挑战假设理论模型和生物社会地位模型得出, 人体内的睾酮水平对竞争性相互作用具有高度反应性。此外, 通过对大量研究的回顾与分析, 我们总结出睾酮水平的变化可以通过增强杏仁核的反应性或减少前额叶皮质-杏仁核功能耦合来影响攻击行为。未来的研究者应考虑其他激素(如皮质醇)和人格特征调节睾酮和人类攻击行为之间关系的潜在作用, 以及相关的生物学机制。