Behavioral analysis of clinical cases

The behavior-analytic approach to clinical phenomena is presented. An operationalized framework for conducting behavioral analysis with clinical cases is provided. Idiographic analysis and treatment innovation are conceptualized and conducted within the framework of the experimental method. Differences between technological and behavior-analytic approaches are illustrated.     

Memory for sequences of stimuli and responses

Two experiments sought to determine if pigeons could discriminate and remember recent sequences of stimuli and responses. A variant of Konorski's short-term memory procedure involving successive presentation of sample and test stimuli was used. The samples were stimulus-response pairs of the form, (S-R)₁–(S-R)₂. Differential test responding disclosed memory of the two-item samples, with birds showing earlier and greater control by the second item than the first (Experiment 1). When the retention interval separating the second item of the sample sequence from the test stimulus was lenghtened from .5 to 2.0 or 4.0 sec, a systematic loss of stimulus control resulted; however, when varied over the same temporal range, the interval between the two items of the sample sequence had a much smaller effect, or none at all (Experiment 2). These results support an account of response-sequence differentiation that stresses short-term memory of organized behavior patterns.     

Behavioral measures of assertiveness: A comparison of audio and audiovisual coding of structured interactions

This study assessed the relative utility of audio and audiovisually recorded versions of structured interactions from the Behavioral Assertiveness Test-Revised. The subjects were 28 adult male psychiatric patients who participated in an assertion training program. The systems were evaluated on a number of dimensions including reliability, comparability, sensitivity to change, concurrent and discriminant validity, and cost. The two systems were found to be approximately equally reliable, to produce comparable results on measures that were assessed by both systems, and to be approximately equally sensitive to change. The main advantage of the audiovisual system was the inclusion of a measure of eye contact — which proved to be one of the most valid component behaviors assessed. Potential users need to weigh the additional information obtained from this measure against the substantially greater cost of the audiovisual system. It was concluded that both systems could be simplified, and limitations of the study were noted.     

SMALL GROUP BEHAVIORAL TRAINING TO IMPROVE THE JOB INTERVIEW SKILLS REPERTOIRE OF MILDLY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS

Four retarded adolescents, enrolled in a short-term residential treatment program, received behavioral job interview skills training. Although potentially employable, each was unable to present himself effectively in standard employment interviews. Treatment consisted of a series of behavioral group sessions using instructions, modeling and rehearsal procedures to increase, in multiple baseline fashion, such skills as the adolescents' ability to disclose positive information about their experience and background, convey interest in the position and direct relevant questions to an interviewer. Effectiveness of treatment for each client was assessed by: (1) Objective ratings of performance during individual, structured role-play job interviews following each treatment group; (2) objective ratings of pre- and posttraining performance during tape recorded in vivo generalization job interviews at a fast-food restaurant; and (3) global evaluations of pre- and posttraining in vivo generalization interviews made by experienced personnel interviewers unfamiliar with the nature of the treatment. The results indicated that potentially employable retarded citizens can be successfully taught appropriate job interview behavior using a small group behavioral procedure. The need for such techniques in community and rehabilitation centers for retarded citizens and other clinical populations is discussed.     

Observation procedure, observer gender, and behavior valence as determinants of sampling error in a behavior assessment analogue

Several factors thought to influence the representativeness of behavioral assessment data were examined in an analogue study using a multifactorial design. Systematic and unsystematic methods of observing group behavior were investigated using 18 male and 18 female observers. Additionally, valence properties of the observed behaviors were inspected. Observers' assessments of a videotape were compared to a criterion code that defined the population of behaviors. Results indicated that systematic observation procedures were more accurate than unsystematic procedures, though this factor interacted with gender of observer and valence of behavior. Additionally, males tended to sample more representatively than females. A third finding indicated that the negatively valenced behavior was overestimated, whereas the neutral and positively valenced behaviors were accurately assessed.     

The California drought: A quasi-experimental analysis of social policy

The effect of fines for failure to conserve water during the California drought of 1976 to 1978 was evaluated in a retrospectively arranged multiple-baseline design across three San Francisco Bay area cities. The data indicated that, on a community level, significant savings of water occurred regardless of whether fines were introduced or not. However, on an individual level, fines appeared to have an effect on private, as opposed to commercial or industrial, consumers who had received at least one fine. The limitations imposed on these conclusions by the quasi-experimental nature of the design were highlighted. Possible reasons for water conservation in the absence of fines were discussed within the framework of stimulus control. It was suggested that an area for future research should be the delineation of stimulus parameters involved in producing behavior change in entire communities.     

Some promising dimensions for behavioral community technology

In recent years, the search for effective and replicable approaches to planned change in communities has escalated. Applied behavior analysts have participated in these efforts to remedy existing community problems and to increase the capacities of community residents to meet their goals. Examples of behavioral technologies for community settings are described and their advantages are noted. Criteria for more contextually appropriate community technologies are suggested and strategies for developing behavioral methods according to these criteria are described. This paper outlines some promising dimensions for behavioral community technology and discusses several possible limitations to a behavioral approach to addressing societal problems.     

Matching, contrast, and equalizing in the concurrent lever-press responding of rats

Five rats pressed levers for food reinforces delivered by several concurrent variable-interval variable-interval schedules. The rate of reinforcement available for responding on one component schedule was held constant at 60 reinforcers per hour. The rate of reinforcement available for responding on the other schedule varied from 30 to 240 reinforcers per hour. The behavior of the rats resembled the behavior of pigeons pecking keys for food reinforcers. The ratio of the overall rates of responding emitted under, and the ratio of the time spent responding under, the two components of each concurrent schedule were approximately equal to the ratio of the overall rates of reinforcement obtained from the components. The overall rate of responding emitted under, and the time spent responding under, the variable component schedule varied directly with the overall rate of reinforcement from that schedule. The overall rate of responding emitted under, and the time spent responding under, the constant component schedule varied inversely with the overall rate of reinforcement obtained from the variable component. The local rates of responding emitted under, and the local rates of reinforcement obtained from, the two components did not differ consistently across subjects. But they were not exactly equal either.     

Interventions to Address the Academic Impairment of Children and Adolescents with ADHD

There exists a strong link between ADHD and academic underachievement. Both the core behavioral symptoms of ADHD and associated executive functioning deficits likely contribute to academic impairment. Current evidence-based approaches to the treatment of ADHD (i.e., stimulant medication, clinical behavior therapy and classroom behavioral interventions) have demonstrated a robust impact on behavioral variables such as attention and disruptive behavior within classroom analogue settings; however, their efficacy in improving academic outcomes is much less clear. Although surprisingly few treatment outcome studies of ADHD have attempted to incorporate interventions that specifically target academic outcomes, the studies that are available suggest that these interventions may be beneficial. The state of the treatment literature for addressing academic impairment in children and adolescents with ADHD will be reviewed herein, as well as limitations of current research, and directions for future research.     

Prediction of treatment outcome among patients with irritable bowel syndrome treated with group cognitive therapy

Using a sample of over 125 patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) who were treated with cognitive therapy administered in small groups, we sought to predict end of treatment and 3-month follow-up improvement in two changes indices of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms (Pain/Discomfort Index which assessed change in abdominal pain, abdominal tenderness and bloating and Bowel Regularity Index which assessed change in diarrhea and constipation). We also sought to predict scores on IBS specific quality of life (QOL) and overall level of psychological distress using the Global Severity Index (GSI) of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI). Significant, but modest, levels of prediction were found for prediction of improvement in GI symptoms (4-15% of variance). Stronger significant prediction was obtained for the QOL and global psychological distress measure with R(2)'s ranging from 0.36 to 0.50. A wide variety of demographic, GI symptom, psychological status and psychiatric status variables entered the final prediction equations.