Undermatching and contrast within components of multiple schedules

Six multiple variable-interval schedules each comprised one variable-interval sixty second component and an alternated component which was varied. Four pigeons' responses were recorded in five successive subintervals of each component. Response rate changes across subintervals revealed instances of local contrast and small local induction effects in the changed component. In the constant component, smaller local contrast and larger local induction effects obtained. Accordingly, the magnitude of behavioral contrast, defined as an inverse relation between response rate in the constant component and reinforcement rate in the changed component, did not change reliably across subintervals of the constant component. Ratios of response rates in initial subintervals were highly sensitive to reinforcement ratios. Sensitivity decreased sharply over the first two-fifths of the components and remained constant for the remainder. The results demonstrated that changes in multiple schedule sensitivity are a function of time since the alternation of successive components.     

It's Not How Hard You Work But How You Work Hard: Evaluating Workaholism Components

This study examines the relationship of three workaholism components (work involvement, feeling driven to work, work enjoyment) proposed by Spence and Robbins (1992) and a variety of work and psychological well being outcomes. Workaholism components generally had significant relationships with these outcome measures, controlling for personal and situational factors. Feeling driven was more likely to be associated with negative well-being outcomes; work enjoyment more likely associated with positive work outcomes.     

Workaholism in Organizations: Measurement Validation and Replication

Although workaholism in organizations has received considerable attention in the popular press, our understanding of it based on research is quite limited. This deficit is the result of absence of both suitable definitions and measures of the concept. This study reports the replication of earlier work undertaken by Spence and Robbins (1992) applying their measures to a managerial population (N = 530). Considerable support was found for the usefulness of their measures based on reliability and construct validity data.     

Behavioral Gerontology: State of the Science

Baer, Wolf and Risley's (1968) dimensions of applied behavior analysis are used as an organizing framework to review and discuss current research on the application of behavioral principles to the solution of social problems faced by older adults. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Increasing accuracy and decreasing latency during clean intermittent self-catheterization procedures with young children.

We examined the effects of simulation training on performance of clean intermittent self-catheterization procedures with 2 young girls. Simulation training was conducted, after which independent performance was assessed within a multiple baseline design. The training resulted in increased accuracy and decreased latency for both girls.     

Modifying drug-reinforced behavior by altering the economic conditions of the drug and a nondrug reinforcer.

Six rhesus monkeys were trained to self-administer orally delivered phencyclidine (0.25 mg/mL) and saccharin (0.03% wt/vol) under concurrent fixed-ratio 16 schedules. In Condition 1 the fixed-ratio requirement for phencyclidine was changed from 16 to 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 and 16 while the fixed-ratio requirement for saccharin deliveries remained constant at 16. In Condition 2 the fixed-ratio value for saccharin was systematically altered while the fixed-ratio requirement for phencyclidine remained at 16, and in Condition 3 the fixed-ratio requirements for both phencyclidine and saccharin were altered simultaneously. Water was then substituted for saccharin, and the series of fixed-ratio manipulations was replicated. The phencyclidine concentration was reduced to 0.125 mg/mL and Conditions 1 and 3 were repeated. When the fixed-ratio requirement for phencyclidine was increased and the fixed-ratio requirement for saccharin or water remained fixed at 16, phencyclidine deliveries decreased when saccharin (vs. water) was concurrently available. The magnitude of the decrease ranged from 20% to 90% (of the concurrent water condition) as the fixed-ratio requirement for phencyclidine increased from 4 to 128. When the fixed-ratio requirement for phencyclidine remained at 16 and the fixed-ratio requirements for concurrent saccharin or water varied between 4 and 128, phencyclidine deliveries decreased by 30% to 40% due to the concurrent availability of saccharin (vs. water). This decrease occurred only at the three lowest fixed-ratio values when saccharin intake was relatively high. When the fixed-ratio requirements for both phencyclidine and concurrent saccharin or water were varied simultaneously, phencyclidine deliveries were reduced from 20% to 45% when saccharin (vs. water) was concurrently present. There was little effect of reducing the phencyclidine concentration when the data were analyzed in terms of unit price (responses per milligram). Thus, changes in the fixed-ratio requirement or drug concentration were functionally similar, and unit price of phencyclidine was the variable that was influenced by the presence of concurrent saccharin. These data indicate that drug-reinforced behavior is substantially reduced when the environment is enriched with an alternative nondrug reinforcer. The economic context in which these substances are presented is an important determinant of drug-reinforced behavior.     

A re-examination of local contrast in multiple schedules

Pigeons were presented with multiple schedules of alternating 90-sec components. When components in which grain was never presented alternated with components in which grain was presented on a variable-interval schedule, the average rate of responding in the variable-interval components increased, showing overall positive behavioral contrast. Unlike previous reports, this study found that the response rates for all birds increased toward the end of the variable-interval components as training proceeded. This increase in local response rate disappeared when the multiple schedule was composed solely of variable-interval components and reappeared when the variable-interval components were again alternated with extinction. This finding cannot be predicted or explained by recent theories of behavioral contrast based on autoshaping, and thus questions their sufficiency. We suggest that this local response-rate increase results from the predictable change from high to low density of reinforcement at the end of the fixed-duration component. Thus, the present effect apparently illustrates a different type of interaction between components of a multiple schedule than that described by previous theories of contrast. In a given procedure, either or both types of interaction may occur; neither provides a complete account of behavioral contrast.     

Observer reliability as a function of circumstances of assessment

THREE FACTORS CHARACTERISTIC OF EXPERIMENTAL SETTINGS WERE HYPOTHESIZED TO INFLATE ARTIFACTUALLY THE RELIABILITY OF OBSERVATIONAL RECORDINGS: (a) knowledge by observers of when and by whom their reliability is being assessed, (b) the absence of the experimenter or a monitor to prevent cheating, and (c) computation of reliability within- (versus between-) observer group. Three groups of four observers used a standard nine-category observational code for disruptive behavior in recording from videotapes of a classroom for 22 days. Analyses revealed considerable increases in average occurrence reliability as a function of the main effects of each of the experimental factors. The specific increases in reliability associated with each of the 12 combinations of the experimental factors are presented for each category of behavior. The possible role of observer-training procedures and behavioral definitions as determiners of nonartifactual reliability is discussed.     

Behaviors observed during S- in a simple discrimination learning task

Key pecking of pigeons was reinforced with food in the presence of a horizontal line and never reinforced in the presence of a vertical line. Highly stereotyped behaviors, as well as key pecking, were observed and recorded in the presence of both stimuli. Results showed that a high proportion of time spent in the presence of the horizontal line was occupied by key pecking, a high proportion of time in the presence of the vertical line was occupied by stereotyped nonkey-pecking behaviors, and intermediate proportions of time spent in the presence of intermediate stimuli were occupied by each class of behavior during generalization tests. Similar running rates (number of key pecks divided by observed key-pecking time) were obtained in the presence of all stimuli, indicating that changes in time rather than tempo accounted for the changes in overall rates of key pecking. An exception occurred in responding to the horizontal line as differential performance was developing. In addition to an increase in time spent key pecking, increased running rates occurred in seven of eight birds, suggesting that both time allocation and tempo play a role in behavioral contrast of overall rates of key pecking.     

UNITS OF ANALYSIS IN TASK-ANALYTIC RESEARCH

We develop and discuss four criteria for evaluating the appropriateness of units of analysis for task-analytic research and suggest potential alternatives to the units of analysis currently used. Of the six solutions discussed, the most commonly used unit of analysis in current behavior analytic work, percentage correct, meets only one of the four criteria. Five alternative units of analysis are presented and evaluated: (a) percentage of opportunities to perform meeting criterion, (b) trials to criteria, (c) cumulative competent performances, (d) percentage correct with competent performance coded, and (e) percentage correct with competent performance coded and a grid showing performance on individual steps of the task analysis. Of the solutions evaluated, only one—percentage correct with competent performance coded and a task analysis grid—met all four criteria.