Corrective Feedback in Oral Reading

We examined 24 studies to determine the effects on word recognition and reading comprehension of correcting errors during oral reading. Corrective feedback improved students' word reading accuracy on words in lists, and accuracy in reading words in passages. Some correction procedures had greater benefits than others. Successful error correction procedures share common characteristics, leading to recommendations about instruction: Teachers should (a) correct errors immediately; (b) require students to repeat the correct response; and (c) match correction procedure to the instructional situation and the learner. Several research recommendations are outlined.     

Multi-Encoding for Pitch Information of Tone Sequences

This study was designed to investigate the possibilities that subjects would visualize an auditory contour as a visual contour (visual imagery) to encode pitch information of tone sequences (Experiment 1), and that subjects would be motivated to attempt to engage in covert rehearsal with multi-code (Experiment 2). The findings from these experiments suggest that: (a) Whereas the highly musically trained subjects were able to encode pitches as accurate notes on a staff, the less well musically trained subjects encoded the pitch sequence as a contour. It is quite evident that there is an intermodal analogy between the perception of pitch relationships and that of relationships in visual space. (b) Pitch rehearsal of auditory information along with note names (dual-code) and staff notation accompanied by pitch rehearsal with note names (triple-code) were the most effective strategies for highly trained subjects with pitches of tonal sequences; melodic contour accompanied by pitch rehearsal (dual-code) was used by highly trained subjects with atonal sequences and by less well trained subjects with both types of sequences.     

Effects of daily probing on acquisition of instructive feedback responses

This study evaluated the effects of daily probes of instructive feedback stimuli on students' acquisition of two types of instructive feedback responses. Four students, two with disabilities, participated and were taught four sets of behaviors, two sets received daily probes and two sets did not. A modification of the multiple probe design across behaviors was used. The findings indicate that students acquired their target behaviors rapidly and maintained correct responding during subsequent probe conditions. Students also acquired both types of instructive feedback and maintained it across subsequent probe conditions. The daily probes of the instructive feedback stimuli did not appear to enhance acquisition or maintenance of the instructive feedback responses, but students appeared to acquire the instructive feedback responses while learning their target behaviors. The implications of this study for understanding how students learn instructive feedback responses and for practice are discussed.     

THE USE OF IMPOSED AND SELF-SELECTED TRAINING PACKAGES TO ESTABLISH CLASSROOM TEACHING SKILLS1

Although much is known about techniques for teaching elementary pupils in the classroom, no procedures have been consistently effective in training teachers to use these techniques. In the present study, six teacher trainees were observed individually and trained sequentially to use a variety of teaching skills: praise for academic responses, praise for appropriate classroom behavior, correction procedures for incorrect academic responses, and token fines. These skills were examined under four conditions: (1) baseline sessions were taught by the trainees before any instructions on the use of the teaching skills. (2) Instruction sessions were taught by the trainees after they were given instructions describing the use of several teaching skills. (3) During each Imposed-Package session, the trainees received modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, and grade and quiz contingencies on their use of a particular teaching skill. (4) During each Self-Selected Package session, a grade contingency was in effect with the trainees choosing the components (modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, quiz contingency) they wanted included in their training package for a particular skill. The effects of instructions were quite varied. Large increases on three of the four skills occurred with one trainee; almost no changes occurred with another trainee; and changes with the remaining four trainees fell within these extremes. The Imposed and Self-Selected Packages reliably increased the use of teaching skills, including those skills for which instructions had not been effective. The Self-Selected Package was considered to be as effective as the Imposed Package, since the time required for training a teaching skill varied from two to nine sessions with both packages. Under the Self-Selected Package, the trainees chose from modelling, verbal feedback, and graphic feedback, but none chose the quiz contingency. Questionnaire data collected after training showed that all six trainees preferred the Self-Selected Package to the Imposed Package. The effectiveness of the Self-Selected Package, together with the trainees' preference for it, suggests that it may be desirable for teacher training programs to specify the teaching skills, arrange a contingency for performance, and allow trainees to choose which additional components are to be used in each training session.     

An experimental analysis of electricity conservation procedures

Daily electricity consumption of four families was recorded for 106 days. A reversal design, consisting of various experimental conditions interspersed between repeated baseline conditions, was used. During experimental conditions, daily prompts (written conservation slogans attached to front doors) and/or daily feedback (daily kilowatts consumed and daily cost information) were in effect. Maximum consumption occurred during the initial baseline; minimum consumption occurred during different experimental conditions for different families. The mean decrease from the maximum to the minimum for all families was 35%. Reversals in consumption were demonstrated in three families, although successive baselines tended to decrease. No clear differences in effectiveness between prompting and feedback conditions were apparent. The procedures used resulted in considerable dollar savings for the families.     

A behavioral approach to coaching football: improving the play execution of the offensive backfield on a youth football team

Because of the emphasis on winning, the difficulties involved in assessing performance, and the lack of frequent and contingent reinforcement, a behavioral approach to coaching football was used. The players, all nine- or ten-year-old males, were members of an offensive backfield on a Pop Warner football team. Three frequently-run offensive plays were broken down into a series of five behaviorally defined stages, permitting construction of checklists suitable for observing the players during both game and scrimmage sessions. The intervention consisted of the presentation and explanation of the appropriate checklist, and frequent contingent reinforcement in the form of feedback and recognition for instances of desired play execution. Performance gains averaging 20% occurred for each of the three plays after, and not before, the staggered introduction of each intervention. The results suggest that behavioral specification and positive reinforcement of desired play execution is a viable approach to the coaching of football.     

An analysis of public posting in reducing speeding behavior on an urban highway

The effects of public posting on speeding behavior on an urban highway were assessed using a reversal design. During baseline the percentage of drivers speeding was measured with a concealed radar unit. During the daily posting condition a highway sign was installed which provided feedback on the percentage of drivers not speeding yesterday and the best record to date. This sign was then covered and reintroduced. Results indicated that the sign was effective in reducing speeding behavior. Furthermore, the effects were most pronounced in reducing the speeds of the faster drivers. Next, daily and weekly postings were compared with the sign alone without numerical feedback: results revealed that the weekly posting condition was as effective as the daily posting condition, but that the sign had no influence when numbers were not posted. Finally, the weekly posting procedure remained effective during a 6-month follow-up condition.     

Behavioral and dimensional contrast in rats.

Rats pressed a nose key for brain stimulation reinforcement presented on a fixed-interval schedule. Stimuli were drawn at random from a continuum of 12 white noise intensities in the range 62-95 decibels, spaced in 3 decibel steps. Experiment 1 varied the number of stimuli and the reinforcement contingencies associated with them. In Condition I (baseline) all stimuli signaled reinforcement; in Conditions II and III stimuli from one half of the continuum signaled reinforcement and those from the other half, extinction. However, in Condition II the 6 stimuli from the middle of the continuum were omitted. Experiment 2 held constant the number of stimuli and varied their spacing. In Condition I, each of 6 sounds signaled reinforcement. In Conditions II and II, three stimuli from one half of the continuum signaled reinforcement and three from the other half, extinction. However, in Condition II the stimuli were near the extremes of the continuum (Stimuli 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12). Condition III replaced Stimulus 3 with Stimulus 6 and Stimulus 10 with Stimulus 7. Behavioral contrast was seen in an increase over baseline in response rate to the stimuli associated with the constant schedule component when the variable component was changed to extinction. Dimensional contrast was seen in a further elevation of rate to intermediate positive stimulus values when stimuli were added to the border region between positive and negative values.