Good to the last drop? Millikan stories as “canned” pedagogy

In recent literature, the famous Millikan oil-drop experiment appears as a case of “good scientific judgment” on the one hand, and scientific misconduct on the other. This article discusses different interpretations of the fact that Nobel laureate Robert Millikan’s notebooks show that he eliminated a number of oildrops in his published 1913 paper on the charge of the electron, while reporting that he had included all the drops. Starting with the common source of all Millikan stories, historian of physics Gerald Holton’s 1978 paper, I discuss recent “canned” versions of Millikan-as-misbehaver in books on scientific fraud. Then I examine some versions of Millikan-as-good-scientist, particularly the reconstruction by historian of physics Allan Franklin, and the views of some practicing physicists. Finally, we have an instructive head-on collision between the two standard treatments of Millikan. The problem with canned stories is not only insufficient information; we also lack a realistic evaluation of the role of ethics in science. As a fundamentally knowledge-seeking enterprise, science may harbor an inherent, perhaps irresolvable, conflict between scientific and ethical concerns. The author’s special interests include standards for “good science”, science and values, and social psychology.     

儿童运动行距预测能力的发展及影响因素

采用计算机软件控制实验,以三种不同运动速度、四种不同运动行距组合呈现的光点运动为刺激物,每次光点在暴露运动一段行程后进入遮蔽,要求儿童判断光点到达目标位置时按键反应。主要结果表明：（１）儿童运动行距预测能力的发展表现为５─８岁和１２─１９岁两个加速期及８─１２岁一个过渡期的发展模式。但在过渡期内,儿童的预测误差偏向有显著变化;（２）客体运动速度对儿童运动行距预测操作精度有显著影响,慢速下精度较高;（３）客体运动行距、被试性别并不影响儿童的行距预测操作;（４）５岁、１２岁与１９岁儿童多倾向于超前反应。     

EFFECTS OF IMMEDIATE AND DELAYED ERROR CORRECTION ON THE ACQUISITION AND MAINTENANCE OF SIGHT WORDS BY STUDENTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

We compared immediate and delayed error correction during sight-word instruction with 5 students with developmental disabilities. Whole-word error correction immediately followed each error for words in the immediate condition. In the delayed condition, whole-word error correction was provided at the end of each session's three practice rounds. Immediate error correction was superior on each of the four dependent variables.     

Correcting the oral reading errors of a beginning reader

Correcting student errors is an important educational concern for teachers. In this study, an alternating treatments design was used to compare the effectiveness of four methods for correcting oral reading errors, including immediate word supply, delayed word supply, sound out (phonics analysis), and directed rehearsal techniques. The subject was a 6-year-old beginning reader with average ability. Results showed that the directed rehearsal procedure was the most effective method. This study demonstrated that teachers can use rigorous research methods in their own classrooms to determine which teaching strategies they should use with their students.     

Guidelines for flash card instruction

Flash card drills provide students with a means to memorize information such as sight words, math facts, state capitols, foreign language vocabulary, and equations. Because of the utility of flash cards in educational practice, information on behavioral strategies to increase the effectiveness of their use may be especially valuable to teachers. This article provides guidelines for flash card instruction based on current research. These guidelines are to: a) intersperse known items, b) minimize errors, c) use feedback for correct and error responses, and d) select an instructional arrangement (e.g., group format) that will enhance responding. Future research may refine these guidelines to improve teaching effectiveness.     

An evaluation of time-sample measures of behavior

Continuous and time-sample measures of the in-seat behavior of a secretary were obtained. Measurement error, i.e., the extent to which the sample measures deviated from the continuous measure, was a function of the frequency of the sample measurements and the criterion used to score an example of the behavior. If the behavior had to be exhibited throughout the observational interval (whole-interval time sampling), there was a consistent underestimate of the continuous measure. If the behavior had to be exhibited only briefly within the observational interval (partial-interval time sampling), there was a consistent overestimate of the continuous measure. And, if the behavior had to be exhibited at the end of the observational interval (momentary time sampling), overestimations and underestimations of the continuous measure occurred about equally often. As expected, the more frequently the sample measures were made the closer was the agreement between the sample and continuous measures. Two conclusions concerning measurement error in interval time sampling were made. The first was that the error will be a function of the mean time per response. The second is that this error will not be consistent across experimental conditions.     

Taking a closer look: time sampling and measurement error

A person manufactured his in-seat behavior for 15, 30-min sessions so that there were three blocks of five sessions where the behavior occurred 20%, 50%, and 80% of the time. Whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time-sample measures of the behavior were taken and compared to the continuous measure of the behavior i.e., per cent of time the behavior occurred. For interval time sampling, the difference between the continuous and sample measures i.e., measurement error, was: (1) extensive, (2) unidirectional, (3) a function of the time per response, and (4) inconsistent across changes in the continuous measure. A procedural analysis demonstrated that the frequency and duration of behavior are confounded in interval time sampling. Momentary time sampling was found to be superior to interval time sampling in estimating the duration a behavior occurs.     

"Perhaps it would be better not to know everything."

The advent of statistical methods for evaluating the data of individual-subject designs invites a comparison of the usual research tactics of the group-design paradigm and the individual-subject-design paradigm. That comparison can hinge on the concept of assigning probabilities of Type 1 and Type 2 errors. Individual-subject designs are usually interpreted with implicit, very low probabilities of Type 1 errors, and correspondingly high probabilities of Type 1 errors, and correspondingly high probabilities of Type 2 errors. Group designs are usually interpreted with explicit, moderately low probabilities of Type 1 errors, and therefore with not such high probabilities of Type 2 errors as in the other paradigm. This difference may seem to be a minor one, considered in terms of centiles on a probability scale. However, when it is interpreted in terms of the substantive kinds of results likely to be produced by each paradigm, it appears that the individual-subject-design paradigm is more likely to contribute to the development of a technology of behavior, and it is suggested that this orientation should not be abandoned.     

The uniqueness of software errors and their impact on global policy

The types of errors that emerge in the development and maintenance of software are essentially different from the types of errors that emerge in the development and maintenance of engineered hardware products. There is a set of standard responses to actual and potential hardware errors, including: engineering ethics codes, engineering practices, corporate policies and laws. The essential characteristics of software errors require new ethical, policy, and legal approaches to the development of software in the global arena. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Engineering Foundation Conference on “Ethics for Science and Engineering Based International Industries” Durham, NC, USA. September 1997.     

An ecological assessment of community-based interventions for prevention and health promotion: Approaches to measuring community coalitions

Presented an ecological assessment of a community coalition to prevent alcohol, tobacco, and other drug abuse, and related risks. Ecological assessment is defined as occurring at multiple social levels and along a continuum of stages of coalition readiness. The assessment is aided by the triangulation, or combining of assessment methods and strategies. Measures used to assess the coalition's formation, implementation of community initiatives, and production of community impacts are described, along with the triangulation strategies used to enhance the assessment findings. We thank our evaluation team members including Erica Adams, Simon Choi, Cindy Crusto, Katie Davino, David delaCruz, Pamela Goodman, Maury Nation, and Diana Seybolt. We also thank the members of the community coalitions for substance abuse prevention and especially the project directors: James Bown, Dian Crain, Johneta Davis, Kelli Kenninson, Paul Pittman, Greg Sparkman, Sheryl Taylor, and Kenneth Wright.