COMPUTERIZED SYSTEMS FOR COLLECTING REAL-TIME OBSERVATIONAL DATA

Advances in computer technology have led to the development of a number of semiautomated systems for collecting real-time observational data. We conducted a survey of 15 developers of computerized systems and summarized the features of each system. Many of these systems have incorporated laptop or handheld computers as well as bar-code scanners. Most systems used IBM-compatible (DOS or Windows) software, although a few were designed for either the MacOS or some other operating system. The range in prices started from free to more complete systems costing over $1,500. Data analysis programs were included with most programs; however, only about a third of the systems included a program to compute interobserver agreement.     

The Nuts and Bolts of Behavioral Observation of Marital and Family Interaction

Despite considerable discussion in the literature about the advantages of observational research and the relative benefits of different coding systems and strategies, little is written about the actual implementation of this assessment strategy. This paper presents an overall framework as well as the essential components involved in collecting (selection of task, setting, unit of analysis, and coding system) and coding (transcribing, selecting and training coders, transforming data, and analyzing reliability) of observational data. To achieve success with observational methods, we emphasize several issues, including (a) the research question as the motivator for all decisions, (b) the interrelatedness of tasks, and (c) the implications of decisions early in the process for later stages of analysis and interpretation. Investigators are encouraged to communicate the details of their observational and coding procedures so that these methods are readily accessible for purposes of replication and comparison.     

Gross overactivity: A study by direct observation

A group of children who were rated as grossly overactive by a clinician was compared with a matched control group on various measurements of their behavior in a clinical interview situation and in a psychological test situation. An observational schedule was developed to discern those behaviors related to the concept of overactivity. These behaviors were operationally defined to enable reliable replication. The experimental group showed an excess in quantity of mechanically recorded movement as well as an increase in a cluster of behaviors including distractibility and disinhibition. Situational effects on those symptoms were noted. The symptoms were best observed in a semistructured clinical interview situation.This project was carried out while S. L. Luk was a research worker at the Institute of Psychiatry, London, supported by the University of Hong Kong. The authors express sincere thanks to Dr. S. Sandberg for her help in the reliability study, to Dr. J. Bacon-Soong for his statistical advice, and to Miss Ivy Wong for secretarial help.The coding scheme is available from the author.     

THE REPRESENTATIVENESS OF OBSERVATIONAL SAMPLES OF DIFFERENT DURATIONS

The representativeness of behavioral observation samples with durations of less than the whole time of interest was investigated. A real-time recording system was developed to quantify the behavior of 5 profoundly mentally retarded physically handicapped adult students in an institutional training setting. Behavior was observed using six mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories during 2.5-hr observation sessions. Sample observation sessions with durations ranging from 15 to 135 min were computer simulated from the whole-session (150-min) records. It was found that the representativeness of these samples, when compared to whole-session records, was a function of the relative duration of the behavioral categories and of sample duration. The occurrence of relatively high-duration behaviors (lasting for more than 50% of the session) was estimated to within 20% error by samples of less than 60 min, but low-duration behaviors (1 to 3% of the session) were inadequately quantified even from 135-min samples. Increasing irregularity of bouts of behavior in the low-duration behaviors is suggested as the cause of the functions obtained. Implications of the findings for applied behavior analysis are discussed, with the recommendation that the adequacy of observational session durations be empirically assessed routinely.     

Toward an empirically based parameter selection for time-sampling observation systems

The measurement error of time-sampling observation systems, used to estimate the frequencyof behavioral events, was analyzed by means of a five-factor design, computer simulation experiment. The first three factors represented response parameters: the relative frequency and duration of the behavior and the pattern of response distribution. For each combination of frequency, pattern, and duration, five simulated behavior events were generated within a simulated observation period of 900 sec. A total of 21 different time-sampling systems was employed. As a fourth factor three different observe and record lengths were included (6, 12, and 60 sec). In addition, there were seven different ratios of “observe” to “record” interval length (5∶1, 3∶1, 2∶1, 1∶1, 1∶2, 1∶3, and 1∶5) representing the fifth factor. Thus, 21 time-sampling systems scanned a total of 120 different behavior simulations from 24 types of behavior parameter combinations. The data were analyzed by means of a five-factor (2 × 3 × 4 × 3 × 7) analysis of variance with repeated measures on two factors. The study demonstrated that time sampling leads to high average measurement errors, which are determined by complex interrelationships among a variety of variables. Choosing a time-sampling system arbitrarily may lead to highly erroneous data. It was also shown, however, that time-sampling systems have the potential to yield very accurate results. An empirical selection procedure for time-sampling intervals is proposed to minimize measurement error. Exemplary tables are presented from which time-sampling parameters can be chosen given that the rate, duration, and pattern of occurrence of a behavior to be observed are known.     

Expertise and injury experience in professional skiers modulate the ability to predict the outcome of observed ski-related actions

Professional athletes, compared to beginners, can better predict the outcome of sport-related observed movements, via mirror motor-system modulations (motor resonance). Furthermore, motor-system inhibition occurs when observing other people experiencing pain (pain resonance). Here we investigated whether observing sport-related actions, whose outcome can lead or not to a painful experience, results into different prediction performances depending on expertise and history of injury. Experiment 1 revealed that professional skiers, relative to beginners, show greater prediction accuracy but slower reaction times. Experiment 2 revealed that, among professional skiers, those previously injured, compared to uninjured ones, are slower in predicting the outcome of the observed action when it actually leads to an injury. We hypothesize that such results could be explained by an automatic activation of both motor and pain resonance mechanisms in the onlooker, inducing a sort of experience-dependant freezing response while observing actions likely leading to an injury.     

Examining the utility of the stimulus pairing observation procedure with preschool children learning a second language

We evaluated the effectiveness of a stimulus pairing observation procedure to facilitate tact and listener relations in preschool children learning a second language. This procedure resulted in the establishment of most listener relations as well as some tact relations. Multiple-exemplar training resulted in the establishment of most of the remaining relations. The implications for the use of these procedures to establish simple vocabulary skills in children are discussed.     

How equivalent are the action execution,imagery, and observation of intransitive movements? Revisiting the concept of somatotopy during action simulation

Jeannerod (2001) hypothesized that action execution, imagery, and observation are functionally equivalent. This led to the major prediction that these motor states are based on the same action-specific and even effector-specific motor representations. The present study examined whether hand and foot movements are represented in a somatotopic manner during action execution, imagery, and action observation.