Post‐traumatic functional recovery and reorganization in animal models: A theoretical and methodological challenge

Studies addressing cerebral functional localization face methodological and theoretical problems. Lesion experiments expect that when a functionally specialized structure is missing, its function can be deduced from the resulting impairments. Mostly, however, initial impairments are partially or fully eliminated through functional recovery. Apparently, such a recovery contradicts the notion of functional localization. In order to understand the mechanisms of recovery, improved methodology and a new theoretical framework are required. Insights into the mechanisms of recovery can be achieved by using “challenge” techniques, where functionally recovered individuals are exposed to organic and behavioral challenges, e.g. pharmacological manipulations or additional lesions, as well as modified test situations. Using such methods, a number of principles of functional recovery have emerged. We evaluate some of the available theories of post‐traumatic recovery against these principles and find that none of them can account for the principles. Finally, we present a new conceptual framework – the Reorganization of Elementary Functions (REF) model. This model reconceptualizes the term “function”, suggests mechanisms of post‐traumatic reorganizations, and resolves the contradiction between localization and functional recovery.     

ARE ANIMALS MORAL? A THEOLOGICAL APPRAISAL OF THE EVOLUTION OF VICE AND VIRTUE

I discuss controversial claims about the status of non‐human animals as moral beings in relation to philosophical claims to the contrary. I address questions about the ontology of animals rather than ethical approaches as to how humans need to treat other animals through notions of, for example, animal rights. I explore the evolutionary origins of behavior that can be considered vices or virtues and suggest that Thomas Aquinas is closer to Darwin's view on nonhuman animals than we might suppose. An appreciation of the complexity of the emotional lives of social animals and their cooperative behaviors in light of the work of animal ethologists such as Frans de Waal and Marc Bekoff suggests that social animals can be considered moral in their own terms. I discuss the charge of anthropomorphism, drawing on the work of archaeologist Steven Mithen, and consider arguments for the evolution of conscience in the work of anthropologist Christopher Boehm. Only the biological basis for the development of conscience and religion has evolved in nonhuman animals, and this should not be confused with sophisticated moral systems of analysis or particular religious beliefs found in the human community.     

Equine Facilitated Therapy for Children and Adolescents: A Qualitative Pilot Study

Despite recent growth in the use of equine facilitated therapy (EFT), and its potential to be an effective alternative to traditional therapeutic interventions, the literature has not yet provided a convincing explanatory account of the practices implemented within EFT. In this study, the author investigates consistency of clinical practices within the Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association (EAGALA) model of EFT. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with mental health professionals and equine specialists (N = 10) from six Australian EFT clinics. Thematic analysis of data revealed: an absence of an underpinning theoretical model; variations between clinical practices; lack of parental involvement in therapy for children/adolescents; and inadequate research into perceived mechanisms of change driving EFT. This article concludes with a set of recommendations directed at EFT practitioners in order to increase the rigor of practice and maximize the potential of this intervention.     

Religious Representation and Animal Welfare in the U.S. Senate

Does religion affect legislative behavior among U.S. senators? Scholars have established this relationship on issues closely associated with evangelical Christianity, but it is unclear how far the relationship extends. Focusing on animal welfare, this article tests the theory of personal representation and provides an expansion of the religion and legislative behavior literature. Humane Society scores (2005–2014) are regressed on senator religion, party, sex, and several constituency factors. The analysis demonstrates that religion shapes animal welfare activity. Relative to mainline Protestant senators, Mormon senators are less supportive of animal welfare, while Catholics, Jews, and black Protestants are more supportive. Some of this is due to senator religion, but it is also a reflection of state‐level factors, including state ideology and religious constituencies.     

Animal cognition + optimal choice = behavior: A review of adaptive behavior and learning, 2nd Ed., by J. E. R. Staddon

Staddon discusses a vast array of topics in comparative psychology in this book. His view is that adaptive behavior in most cases is the result of optimal choice acting on an animal's knowledge about the world. Staddon refers to this as a functional teleonomic approach inasmuch as it attempts to understand an animal's behavior in terms of goals. He builds mathematical models based on this idea that are designed to reproduce specific sets of empirical observations, usually qualitatively. A natural consequence of Staddon's approach is that many models are developed, each of which applies to a specific set of observations. An alternative to functional teleonomy is a functional approach that builds on prior principles. In most cases, this approach favors a single‐theory account of behavior. Prior principles can be understood as functional stand‐ins for antecedent material causes, which means that these accounts are closer to mechanistic theories than are goal‐based teleonomic accounts. An ontological perspective, referred to as supervenient realism, is a means of understanding the relationship between functional theories and the material world. According to this perspective, the algorithmic operation of a successful functional theory may be understood to supervene on the material operation of the nervous system.     

Knowing without knowing: implicit cognition and the minds of infants and animals / Saber sin saber: la cognición implícita y las mentes de niños pequeños y animales

The main aim of this paper is to highlight the need to address the conceptual problem of ‘implicit knowledge’ or ‘implicit cognition’ — a notion especially important in the study of the nonverbal minds of animals and infants. We review some uses of the term ‘implicit’ in psychology and allied disciplines, and conclude that conceptual clarification of this notion is not only lacking, but largely avoided and reduced to a methodological problem. We propose that this elusive notion is central in the study not only of animal and infant minds, but also the human adult mind. Some promising approaches in developmental and evolutionary psychology towards innovative conceptualization of implicit knowledge remain conceptually underdeveloped and in need of reconsideration and re-elaboration. We conclude by suggesting that the challenge of implicit cognition and nonverbal minds will only be solved through a concerted interdisciplinary approach between psychology and other disciplines.     

Scary and nasty beasts: Self-reported fear and disgust of common phobic animals

Animal phobias are one of the most prevalent mental disorders. We analysed how fear and disgust, two emotions involved in their onset and maintenance, are elicited by common phobic animals. In an online survey, the subjects rated 25 animal images according to elicited fear and disgust. Additionally, they completed four psychometrics, the Fear Survey Schedule II (FSS), Disgust Scale – Revised (DS-R), Snake Questionnaire (SNAQ), and Spider Questionnaire (SPQ). Based on a redundancy analysis, fear and disgust image ratings could be described by two axes, one reflecting a general negative perception of animals associated with higher FSS and DS-R scores and the second one describing a specific aversion to snakes and spiders associated with higher SNAQ and SPQ scores. The animals can be separated into five distinct clusters: (1) non-slimy invertebrates; (2) snakes; (3) mice, rats, and bats; (4) human endo- and exoparasites (intestinal helminths and louse); and (5) farm/pet animals. However, only snakes, spiders, and parasites evoke intense fear and disgust in the non-clinical population. In conclusion, rating animal images according to fear and disgust can be an alternative and reliable method to standard scales. Moreover, tendencies to overgeneralize irrational fears onto other harmless species from the same category can be used for quick animal phobia detection.     

Some consequences of aggressive behavior: A selective review of the literature on other animals

Animal experiments in which the opportunity to aggress was positively reinforcing are surveyed, with attention paid to field and laboratory reports on play and play fighting. A distinction is drawn between ways in which aggressive behavior may be elicited and factors which increase or decrease the probability that aggression will be emitted. Since aggression may be emitted and may also be reinforcing, the possibility that aggressive behavior may be self-reinforcing is mentioned. In addition to positive reinforcement, consequences of aggressive behavior are presented. These include punishment, removal of a noxious stimulus, feeding, arousal, and disinhibition.