现实性监控研究述评

现实性监控是来源记忆的重要组成部分.总结分析表明,现实性监控的研究成果主要体现在如下方面：①学习项目的比例、学习和测验阶段之间的干扰任务、被试的想象能力等均对现实性监控存在一定的影响;②儿童的现实性监控能力随年龄增长而提高,老人的现实性监控能力相对较低;③不同病人在现实性监控中有不同的困难;④内部来源与外部来源提取激活的大脑区域不同,前额区在区分两类项目时的作用明显.今后应在整合研究结论、建立相应认知模型、构建前额区和顶区联合作用的神经网络和应用推广等方面加强研究.     

不同建议来源和关系亲疏下突发事件决策中的框架效应

从建议来源和关系亲疏两个方面对突发事件下的决策框架效应进行探讨。采用2（建议来源：来自普通群众／消防人员）×2（关系亲疏：关系亲密／关系疏远）×2（任务框架：正面框架／负面框架）完全被试间实验设计。实验材料以突发事件为背景,根据Kahneman（1981）研究的经典“亚洲疾病问题”改编。采用集体施测的方法,240名来自济南和重庆的大学生参加了实验。结果发现：①建议来源影响被试的决策反应,尤其是当建议来自专业人士（如消防人员）时,决策者表现出偏好于风险的单向框架效应;②关系亲疏导致不同的框架效应,在拯救包括亲属在内的受灾人群（关系亲密）时,框架效应非常明显;但当拯救陌生人（关系疏远）时,决策者表现出偏好于风险的单向框架效应;③当建议来源和关系亲疏共同作用于被试决策时,凡涉及关系亲密条件时决策者不管建议来源都表现出明显的框架效应;而当关系疏远时不同的建议来源导致决策者的决策框架不同。这说明,不同的建议来源和关系亲疏对突发事件下的决策框架效应产生了影响。     

源问题呈现方式对认知负荷及类比推理的影响

采用2×2×2匹配分组实验设计,以176名初中三年级学生为被试,探讨了源问题呈现方式对中学生认知负荷及类比推理的影响。结果表明：（1）归纳、源问题内容相似性和源问题结构清晰性对认知负荷均有显著影响。（2）归纳和源问题结构清晰性对类比推理均有显著影响,且归纳、源问题内容相似性和源问题结构清晰性三者之间在对类比推理的影响上存在交互作用。     

Witnesses' failure to detect covert manipulations in their written statements

Law enforcement agencies and legal professionals often have to rely on witness statements. Undetected errors in witnesses' statements, however, could impede the accurate reconstruction of a crime and lead to the incrimination of innocent suspects. Here, we examined whether witnesses can detect manipulations in their written statements. We expect that writing a statement could provide a good means for discrimination between what is truly recalled and what is an error. This is because writing allows to monitor and control the previously produced information. In 3 experiments, participants watched a mock crime film and subsequently provided a written statement of what they had witnessed. Following a delay of several minutes (Experiment 1), 48 hr (Experiment 2), or 1 month (Experiment 3), participants were exposed to and interviewed about their testimony. Unknown to them, they were confronted with statements, which included 4 secretly manipulated details. Participants' missed a substantial number of manipulations in their written statements. Importantly, the detection rates varied as a function of delay (Experiments 1 and 2: 74–89%; Experiment 3: 36%–52%). Detection rates also varied as a function of the type of details that were manipulated. Our findings indicate that writing a statement comes with limited benefits in witnesses' ability to detect errors in their statements.     

Post-encoding emotional arousal enhances consolidation of item memory,but not reality-monitoring source memory

The current study examined whether the effect of post-encoding emotional arousal on item memory extends to reality-monitoring source memory and, if so, whether the effect depends on emotionality of learning stimuli and testing format. In Experiment 1, participants encoded neutral words and imagined or viewed their corresponding object pictures. Then they watched a neutral, positive, or negative video. The 24-hour delayed test showed that emotional arousal had little effect on both item memory and reality-monitoring source memory. Experiment 2 was similar except that participants encoded neutral, positive, and negative words and imagined or viewed their corresponding object pictures. The results showed that positive and negative emotional arousal induced after encoding enhanced consolidation of item memory, but not reality-monitoring source memory, regardless of emotionality of learning stimuli. Experiment 3, identical to Experiment 2 except that participants were tested only on source memory for all the encoded items, still showed that post-encoding emotional arousal had little effect on consolidation of reality-monitoring source memory. Taken together, regardless of emotionality of learning stimuli and regardless of testing format of source memory (conjunction test vs. independent test), the facilitatory effect of post-encoding emotional arousal on item memory does not generalize to reality-monitoring source memory.     

Getting at the source of distinctive encoding effects in the DRM paradigm: evidence from signal-detection measures and source judgments

Studying Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) lists using a distinctive encoding task can reduce the DRM false memory illusion. Reductions for both distinctively encoded lists and non-distinctively encoded lists in a within-group design have been ascribed to use of a distinctiveness heuristic by which participants monitor their memories at test for distinctive-task details. Alternatively, participants might simply set a more conservative response criterion, which would be exceeded by distinctive list items more often than all other test items, including the critical non-studied items. To evaluate these alternatives, we compared a within-group who studied 5 lists by reading, 5 by anagram generation, and 5 by imagery, relative to a control group who studied all 15 lists by reading. Generation and imagery improved recognition accuracy by impairing relational encoding, but the within group did not show greater memory monitoring at test relative to the read control group. Critically, the within group’s pattern of list-based source judgments provided new evidence that participants successfully monitored for distinctive-task details at test. Thus, source judgments revealed evidence of qualitative, recollection-based monitoring in the within group, to which our quantitative signal-detection measure of monitoring was blind.     

Source memory that encoding was self-referential: the influence of stimulus characteristics

Decades of research suggest that encoding information with respect to the self improves memory (self-reference effect, SRE) for items (item SRE). The current study focused on how processing information in reference to the self affects source memory for whether an item was self-referentially processed (a source SRE). Participants self-referentially or non-self-referentially encoded words (Experiment 1) or pictures (Experiment 2) that varied in valence (positive, negative, neutral). Relative to non-self-referential processing, self-referential processing enhanced item recognition for all stimulus types (an item SRE), but it only enhanced source memory for positive words (a source SRE). In fact, source memory for negative and neutral pictures was worse for items processed self-referentially than non-self-referentially. Together, the results suggest that item SRE and source SRE (e.g., remembering an item was encoded self-referentially) are not necessarily the same across stimulus types (e.g., words, pictures; positive, negative). While an item SRE may depend on the overall likelihood the item generates any association, the enhancing effects of self-referential processing on source memory for self-referential encoding may depend on how embedded a stimulus becomes in one’s self-schema, and that depends, in part, on the stimulus’ valence and format. Self-relevance ratings during encoding provide converging evidence for this interpretation.     

The effects of mental contamination on the hindsight bias: Source confusion determines success in disregarding knowledge

We present data from eight experiments in which we explored the effects of source confusion on the hindsight bias; participants' success in disregarding information when they were instructed to do so was affected by participants' level of source confusion. In Experiment 1 we demonstrated participants' failure to disregard Revolutionary War information they recently learned while reading an essay; this failure to discount was not affected by participants' essay reading times (Experiment 1a). In Experiment 2 participants successfully discounted obscure War of 1812 information; this discounted information remained available in memory (Experiment 2a). In a direct test of source confusion (Experiment 3) we showed that participants discriminated between presented and not‐presented War of 1812 information better than they discriminated presented and not‐presented Revolutionary War information. In Experiments 4 and 4a we tested and rejected a motivational explanation for our findings, namely that subjects voluntarily withheld information when asked to disregard it. We tested a debiasing technique in Experiment 5 and found it was successful in helping participants discount familiar information. Results throughout are discussed as being attributable to source confusion. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Axiomatizing hybrid products: How can we reason many-dimensionally in hybrid logic?

The aim of this paper is to propose a two-dimensional hybrid logic in order to formalize inferences containing both spatial and temporal propositions. The semantic idea behind the proposal is to name both horizontal and vertical lines in a 2D-plane by two kinds of nominals. This is a generalization of the idea of naming a point in one-dimensional hybrid logic. I give an axiomatization of the proposed two-dimensional hybrid logic and show that it enjoys a general completeness result (called pure completeness) with respect to product Kripke frames. Moreover, in order to capture $T\times W$-frames studied by R.H. Thomason (1984), I introduce the notion of a dependent product frame, which enables us to represent the dependence of space over time. I also give a complete axiomatization of this dependent two-dimensional hybrid logic, and, as a corollary, reveal that a hybridization of $T\times W$-logic enjoys strong completeness.     

内侧颞叶与来源记忆

来源记忆不同于项目记忆。早期的研究认为来源记忆的神经基础主要是前额叶,但近几年的相关研究发现内侧颞叶在来源记忆中的作用也是相当重要的,健康被试的功能神经成像研究和内侧颞叶损伤病人研究都为内侧颞叶在来源记忆中的作用提供了可靠证据。