Driving self-regulation and risky driving outcomes

Self-regulation has been associated with risky driving outcomes in the past but there are no available measures to assess driving-specific self-regulatory capacity. The present study assessed the association of a newly developed driving self-regulation measure with driving violations, errors, and lapses. Overall, 330 UK drivers completed measures of risky driving outcomes, driving anger, trait impulsivity, sensation seeking, normlessness, domain-general trait self-regulation plus a new unidimensional measure of Driving Self-Regulation Questionnaire (DSRQ-16). Bivariate correlation analysis indicated that the DSRQ-16 showed expected associations with both driving-related outcomes and factors, as well as with impulsivity traits and general self-regulation. Bootstrapped hierarchical linear regression models showed that the DSRQ-16 was significantly associated with driving violations, errors, and lapses after controlling for the effects of other relevant predictors. This is the first study to demonstrate the association of driving-specific self-regulation with risky driving behaviour, driving anger, impulsivity and related personality traits. Driving-specific self-regulation may present a novel target for road safety interventions, as well as a theoretically relevant component of models of risky driving behaviour.     

Cognitive load while driving impairs memory of moving but not stationary elements within the environment

The negative impact of cognitive load, such as cell phone conversations, while driving is well established, but understanding the nature of this performance deficit is still being developed. To test the impact of load on awareness of different elements in a driving scene, memory for items within the environment was examined under load and no load conditions. Participants drove through two different scenarios in a driving simulator, were periodically interrupted by a pause in the driving during, and were asked questions regarding moving and stationary objects in the environment. Participants in the load condition drove while concurrently counting backwards by sevens. Results indicate that driving under load conditions led to diminished knowledge of moving, but not stationary, objects in the scene. This result suggests not all types of knowledge are equally impaired. Potential implications for current theories of cell phone use while driving and applied attention theory are discussed.     

Virtual Reality and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Driving Anxiety and Aggression in Veterans: A Pilot Study

Within the U.S. military, motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) are the leading cause of preventable morbidity and mortality. Prior combat exposure and anxiety symptoms are associated with risky and aggressive driving, which is responsible for over half of MVA fatalities. Therefore, interventions are needed to reduce driving anxiety and aggression in veterans in order to mitigate the public health impact of MVAs. Virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) offers safe, controlled exposure to distressing stimuli. The current study piloted a novel virtual reality and cognitive behavioral intervention (VRET + CBT) for veterans that integrated both anxiety and anger management components. Virtual reality driving scenarios were delivered in a driving simulator and tailored for the military population. Six previously deployed veterans completed eight intervention sessions, as well as pre/post, one month follow-up and six to nine month follow-up assessments. Repeated measures ANOVAs demonstrated significant decline and large effect sizes for PTSD symptoms, driving phobia, hyperarousal in driving situations, anxiety/anger-related thoughts and behaviors, and risky driving. Hyperarousal in driving situations declined by 69%, aggressive driving declined by 29%, and risky driving declined by 21%. Treatment gains were maintained at follow-up. Recruitment, retention, immersion, simulator sickness scores, and qualitative feedback demonstrated feasibility of the intervention. Implications for future research and adaptation are discussed.     

Driving speed choice: The role of conscious monitoring and control (reinvestment) when driving

This study aimed to examine the role of reinvestment - the propensity to consciously monitor and control actions (movement specific reinvestment) and to consciously monitor and evaluate decision making processes (Decision specific reinvestment) while driving in everyday risky scenarios. The study also aimed to evaluate the association between reinvestment and previously validated driver attitude measures. Fifty one participants completed a series of questionnaires (Driving Self-Efficacy Scale, Driver Attitude Questionnaire, Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale, Decision Specific Reinvestment Scale) after which they completed a test phase in a driving simulator. In the test phase, driving scenarios included roads with different markings (i.e., double yellow, wide centrelines, wire rope barriers, Audio Tactile Profiled markings) and alerting scenarios (i.e., police car present, high crash risk area sign, reduced speed zone). Results revealed that on risky roads (wide centrelines), participants with a high propensity for decision specific reinvestment drove slower than those with a low propensity. Driver experience, attitudes towards speeding and scores on the Decision Reinvestment subscale of the Decision Specific Reinvestment Scale significantly predicted speed choice. More experienced participants with higher scores on the Decision Reinvestment subscale were more likely to drive slower and participants with worse attitudes towards speeding were likely to drive faster. Participants with a low propensity for movement specific reinvestment (specifically, Movement Self-Consciousness) reduced their speed to a greater extent than those with a high propensity when driving in the police car scenario. There was some evidence to suggest that high decision specific and movement specific reinvesters were more likely to be involved in crashes and receive driving infringements. The current study is the first to demonstrate a significant relationship between reinvestment and driving. The implications of these findings for road safety are discussed.     

A performance analysis of In-Car Music engagement as an indication of driver distraction and risk

Drivers engage in a host of driving-unrelated tasks while on the road. They listen to music, sing-along, and accompany songs by pounding-out drum-kicks and syncopated rhythms on the steering wheel. However, there is controversy over in-cabin music: Does background music facilitate driver performance via increased arousal leading to more focused concentration, or cause distraction placing drivers at greater risk. In an effort to shed light on the debate, the current study evaluated music engagement by employing Music Performance Analyses with audio recordings from three simulated driving conditions. The results indicate that as the perceptual demands of the primary driving task increased, the secondary music activity was hampered, and subsequently sub-optimal vocal and percussive performances were demonstrated consisting of intonation errors, rhythmic inaccuracy, lack of synchrony, inconsistent and unstable temporal flow, neglect of text, and lyric replacement. The findings seem to point out that drivers allocate greater reserves to music than previously considered, and as drivers do not withdraw altogether from music engagement under high-demand driving conditions, driving may be under-resourced. Exploring active music engagement while driving might assist traffic safety researchers in decoding the effects of In-Car Music on driver behavior.     

Investigation of drivers’ thresholds of a subjectively accepted driving performance with a focus on automated driving

Lately, the development and implementation of automated driving moved to the center of interest in the automotive industry. In this context, one of the central issues – the configuration of adequate trajectories – is mainly tackled using a technical approach. However, it appears that a technically ideal driving performance does not necessarily coincide with the drivers’ subjective preferences. This study strives to determine thresholds of a subjectively accepted driving performance regarding lateral vehicle control. A second objective is to analyze the influence of selected personal and situational factors on these thresholds. An empirical online survey with 161 participants rating video sequences of driving performances was conducted. The video sequences differed not only with regard to the lateral offset of the ego-vehicle but also concerning the weather (sun/rain) and traffic conditions (existence/driving behavior of oncoming traffic). Additionally, the participants’ driving experience and sensation seeking were considered in the data evaluation. To analyze the data, binary logistic regression analyses were calculated. They revealed that the subjective evaluation of driving performances varies primarily depending on the lateral offset of both the ego-vehicle and the oncoming traffic. The results indicate that regarding the lateral offset certain thresholds of subjectively accepted driving performances do exist. Regarding the development of automated driving systems, two issues need to be considered in order to ultimately guarantee user acceptance. First, the subjective thresholds need to be integrated into the systems’ trajectory planning. Second, the oncoming traffic’s driving behavior has to be considered.     

Effect of electronic device use while driving on cardiovascular reactivity

Motor vehicle collisions are the leading cause of death in people ages 5–34 in the US, and secondary task engagement, such as talking on a cell phone, is a leading contributor to motor vehicle collisions. The negative effects of secondary task engagement on driving performance has become a prominent recent topic of study given the increasing amount of time drivers engage in distracted driving. However, few studies have examined the effects of secondary task engagement while driving on health related outcomes such as cardiovascular reactivity. Cardiovascular reactivity, as measured by heart rate and blood pressure, has been used in previous studies as a means of measuring effort in task engagement as well as a means to predict cardiovascular disease and stroke. This study investigates the effect of secondary task (talking on a cell phone, texting, and driving with no task) while driving in a simulator on cardiovascular reactivity. Using difference scores between baseline (a period of inactivity) and stimulus (driving with no task and driving with secondary tasks), a repeated measures analysis of variance using a mixed model approach was used to determine the effect of secondary task on cardiovascular reactivity. Findings indicated that talking on a cell phone while driving significantly increased cardiovascular reactivity via heart rate and blood pressure compared to driving with no task. Texting while driving did not differ significantly from driving with no task. This study demonstrates the need for more research on the long term effects of secondary tasks while driving on cardiovascular reactivity and for assessing the risks associated with secondary task use while driving on developing cardiovascular disease or stroke.     

Effects of Share the Keys (STK), a comprehensive,behavioral-based training program for parents and new teen drivers in New Jersey

The New Jersey Graduated Driver License (GDL) restrictions were updated in 2010 with changes that included a more active role of parents monitoring practice driving with their teens. In addition to extending the driving phases, there were new curfew and passenger limit restrictions. Teen drivers were also required to use red decals on license plates to identify themselves as inexperienced drivers. The Division of Highway Traffic Safety had partnered with the Motor Vehicle Commission in the past to produce practice driving guides for parents of teen drivers, but recognized the need to support this type of informational campaign with an educational program for helping parents to understand changes in the GDL and recognize the importance of their role in the GDL monitoring process. In 2010, the New Jersey Parent/Teen Driver Orientation program was developed to educate parents of teen drivers on the new GDL restrictions and Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) findings concerning the importance of parenting roles in teen driver safety. Additional resources were incorporated into the orientation that included the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) community based information and the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) parent-teen driver contracts.This community-based training, known as the New Jersey Parent/Teen Driver Orientation was later renamed Share the Keys, and had been developed for the state as a component of the New Jersey Highway Safety grant received by Kean University. The comprehensive program was designed to engage parents, teens, educators, and law enforcement in the teen driving process and help parents to understand how personal parenting styles and engagement may impact teen crash risk and compliance with the GDL restrictions. Local representatives from traffic safety and law enforcement teamed with school officials and driver education teachers to present programs in their communities. The evaluation process was built into the program as a pre-survey administered at the beginning of the session, a post-survey completed directly afterward, and a voluntary follow-up survey completed on line or mailed, beginning six months later.Evidence from the first year showed that parents maintained a significant level of engagement throughout the GDL process with their teen drivers. However, findings did establish the need to further examine why Authoritative parenting styles had declined, especially since this parenting approach was considered in the literature as most effective in reducing teen crash risks. Therefore, the scope of this study was broadened to a three year effort that reached over 2800 parents and investigated behavioral outcomes impacted by Share the Keys. While comparisons made between driving phases and parenting styles had yielded no significant results, changes within parenting style scores were shown to be effective over time. The reported levels of Permissive and Uninvolved parents remained consistent throughout all three driving phases, while Authoritarian parenting peaked during the Probationary phase, and Authoritative parenting was noted as highest once teens earned their license.     

驾驶经验和危险类型对年轻驾驶员危险知觉的影响

结合反应时和眼动测量方法,采用驾驶经验分组2（年轻新手驾驶员,年轻有经验驾驶员）× 危险类型2（明显危险,隐藏危险）的混合实验设计,探索年轻驾驶员危险知觉的经验优势是否随着危险类型的不同而变化。使用一个基于真实交通情境视频的驾驶员危险知觉任务,对27名年轻新手驾驶员和22名年轻有经验驾驶员进行测试,并使用Tobbi T120记录眼动数据。结果发现,总体上,年轻新手驾驶员对潜在道路危险的反应次数比年轻有经验驾驶员更少,反应时间也更慢。两组驾驶员反应时间的差异,随着危险类型的不同而来源于不同的加工阶段。具体来说：一方面,年轻新手驾驶员对明显危险的反应时间慢,是因为他们对该类危险的评估时间长。另一方面,年轻新手驾驶员对隐藏危险的反应时间慢,是因为他们对该类危险的识别时间长。两组驾驶员对危险的平均注视时间受测试中危险类型的影响但不受驾驶经验的影响。这些研究结果表明,在对年轻新手驾驶员进行危险知觉训练或测试时,应重视危险类型对他们危险知觉的影响。     

Auditory driving and affective influences

Past research has shown that variations in musical tempo influence the perceived rate of visual motion. The goal here was to investigate whether this effect is influenced by audiovisual affect. Participants were presented with montages (slideshows) of positive or negative scenes accompanied by positive or negative music whose rate was either the same as, or 15% faster or slower than that of the montage. The results of a subsequent recognition task showed a higher false alarm rate to faster and slower visual scenes in the presence of accelerated and decelerated soundtracks, respectively. Moreover, the magnitude of these effects significantly increased when music–montage pairs displayed a positive and negative affect, respectively. In contrast, variations in visual rate exerted no influence on auditory rate recognition. These findings have implications for audiovisual art forms as well as theories of cross‐modal perception.