Incorporating multiple secondary targets into learning trials for individuals with autism spectrum disorder

The current study examined the outcome of presenting multiple secondary targets in learning trials for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. We compared conditions in which (a) a secondary target was presented in the antecedent and consequence of trials, (b) two secondary targets were presented in the consequence of trials, (c) one secondary target was presented in the consequence of each trial, and (d) no additional targets were presented trials. The participants acquired the majority of secondary targets. Presenting one or multiple secondary targets per trial, regardless of the location of these secondary targets, increased the efficiency of instruction in comparison to a condition with no secondary target.     

Performance of a visuomotor walking task in an augmented reality training setting

Visual cues can be used to train walking patterns. Here, we studied the performance and learning capacities of healthy subjects executing a high-precision visuomotor walking task, in an augmented reality training set-up. A beamer was used to project visual stepping targets on the walking surface of an instrumented treadmill. Two speeds were used to manipulate task difficulty. All participants (n = 20) had to change their step length to hit visual stepping targets with a specific part of their foot, while walking on a treadmill over seven consecutive training blocks, each block composed of 100 stepping targets. Distance between stepping targets was varied between short, medium and long steps. Training blocks could either be composed of random stepping targets (no fixed sequence was present in the distance between the stepping targets) or sequenced stepping targets (repeating fixed sequence was present). Random training blocks were used to measure non-specific learning and sequenced training blocks were used to measure sequence-specific learning. Primary outcome measures were performance (% of correct hits), and learning effects (increase in performance over the training blocks: both sequence-specific and non-specific). Secondary outcome measures were the performance and stepping-error in relation to the step length (distance between stepping target). Subjects were able to score 76% and 54% at first try for lower speed (2.3 km/h) and higher speed (3.3 km/h) trials, respectively. Performance scores did not increase over the course of the trials, nor did the subjects show the ability to learn a sequenced walking task. Subjects were better able to hit targets while increasing their step length, compared to shortening it. In conclusion, augmented reality training by use of the current set-up was intuitive for the user. Suboptimal feedback presentation might have limited the learning effects of the subjects.     

Factors influencing maternal attack on conspecific intruders by lactating female “TO” strain mice

Factors regulating maternal attack in “TO” strain mice were investigated to determine 1) optimal conditions for inducing this behaviour and 2) the likely utility of this activity. Lactating females were more likely to attack male intruders than female intruders. The mate's presence reduced maternal attack in this strain, or (putting it conversely) aggression was generated in the male's absence. Removal of the mothers from their litters for four to five hours also suppressed maternal attack. Investigation of the bite targets in the maternal attack suggested that it is a defensive, rather than an offensive, response.     

Social aggression and power relations among preschool children

Social agonism and dominance relations were assessed in two preschool groups. An average of 30 hours of observational data was obtained for each group during free-play over a six-week period. A Social Agonism Inventory describing specific initiation and response behaviors during episodes of social conflict was used to code agonistic activity. Dyadic interactions were examined to determine whether the resolution of agonistic interactions conformed to a linear model of social dominance. Although there were group differences in the relative frequency of different forms of conflict, systematic comparison of agonistic wins and losses re vealed similarly rigid and linear dominance structures at both preschools. The relation of aggression and dominance was empirically examined by comparing the initiation and receipt of agonism by high vs low dominance status children. Higher dominance status children engaged in more agonistic interactions, but a majority of these interactions were directed toward other high-ranking group members.     

Some observations on the relationships between preorbital gland opening and social interactions in red deer

The present data indicate that the opening of preorbital glands plays an important role in interindividual interactions in red deer of both sexes. The opening of the preorbital gland seems associated with situations of higher social tension and it probably increases the intensity of expression of a threat. The possible uses of preorbital gland opening during agonistic and in precopulatory encounters are discussed.     

Attack-target attributes and pigeon aggression: Accessibility,vocalization, and body movements

Characteristics of the attack-target in laboratory tests appear to greatly influence the tendency for aggression to be initiated, maintained, and stopped. To address this question, accessibility, target movement, and vocalization among pigeon conspecifics were investigated in two different aggression tests: 1) paired aggression (PA); and 2) schedule-induced aggression (SI). In the PA test, dominant and subordinate roles formed quickly, and soon aggression episodes started to decline. In part, the subordinate's yielding behavior appeared to discourage attack. The significance of the target bird's behavior on attack frequency was borne out by the finding in the SI test that pigeons attacked a shielded, live, active target more often than a passive one. Furthermore, using a specially constructed stuffed pigeon in the SI test, results indicated that programmed, combined aggressive vocalization and body movement evoked most attacks with the VT schedule, vocalization alone evoked the next highest number of attacks, body movement alone the third most, and combined silence and immobility the least attacks. These findings provide a basis for explaining some past reported results associated with target features and a means for selecting other target features for future study.     

The organization of play fighting in the grasshopper mouse (Onychomys leucogaster): Mixing predatory and sociosexual targets and tactics

The body targets contacted, the type of contact made, and the patterns of defense and counterattack elicited by those attacks are examined in the play fighting of captive male and female pairs of grasshopper mice. The nape was the most frequently contacted body target, irrespective of the type of contact made, be it nosing, allogrooming, biting, or striking with a forepaw. The types of defense varied with both body area contacted and type of attack performed. Based on the topography and pattern of contact, it was concluded that grasshopper mice, as is the case for many other muroid rodents, primarily attack and defend targets otherwise contacted during precopulatory encounters. However, grasshopper mice, which are obligate carnivores, also attack and defend predatory targets, although less frequently than sociosexual targets. Surprisingly, predatory attacks were more likely to be counterattacked with predatory attacks, whereas sociosexual attacks were more likely to be counterattacked with sociosexual attacks. Conspecific aggression involves bites directed at the face, lower flanks, and dorsum. Neither the biting of these areas nor the tactics of attack and defense usually associated with such bites were observed during the juvenile interactions. There were no sex differences in either frequency or patterns of attack and defense in play fighting. The data presented for grasshopper mice shed light on the issue of mixing behavior patterns from multiple functional systems during play. Aggr. Behav. 26:319–334, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Dominance structure in small groups of juvenile white-seabream (Diplodus sargus cadenati de la paz,Bauchot and Daget 1974)

Experiments were conducted to investigate the intraspecific aggressive interactions between juveniles of white-seabream (Diplodus sargus cadenati de la Paz, Bauchot and Daget 1974) in relation to dominance hierarchy in small groups. The agonistic interactions between juvenile white-seabream in small groups originated a peck-dominance hierarchy. The dominant (α-fish) generally interacted aggressively and most frequently with the subordinate that was next in line (β-fish) within the dominance hierarchy. This β-fish interacted aggressively more frequently with the γ-fish, and so on. Results demonstrated that fish do not attack subordinates at random. The level of subordination in small groups of juvenile white-seabream was related to body size. Generally, the more aggressive fish manifest a higher growth rate. Aggr. Behav. 24: 197–204, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Effects of prenatal cocaine and genotype on intermale agonistic behavior in Mus musculus

We exposed the pups of three F₁ genotypes of mice to a daily regime of cocaine by injecting their mothers (all C57BL/10J strain) on days 7–18 of gestation with 20 mg/kg subcutaneously. Pups of the cocaine and control groups did not differ on measures of maternal and pup health or size. Male pups were weaned and isolated at 21 days of age and their behaviors measured in an intermale aggression situation at about 80 days of age. Treated and untreated males of each F₁ genotype were paired in dyads with either a C3H/HeJ (hawk-like) or AKR/J (retaliator-like) standard tester male. Standard tester males were not exposed to cocaine. Cocaine treatment alone reduced the overall level of aggression in dyads, and in interaction with genotype or the standard tester it altered the behavior of dyads in all phases of social interaction: the initiation, content, and outcome. Standard testers used as behavioral probes, differentiated cocaine and control males with respect to their stimulus and behavioral qualities. Aggr. Behav. 23:183–196, 1997.© 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.