Effects of reward distribution and performance feedback on competitive responding

To implement competitive contingencies, one must select a distribution of unequal rewards and a schedule of feedback for competitors regarding one another's performance. This study investigated three bases for distributing rewards and two performance feedback conditions. Pairs of college students competed over a series of 2-min contests in which the competitive response was a knob pull. A sum of money was divided using a proportional distribution or one of two fixed reward distributions. In the proportional distribution, a subject's proportion of the sum was his or her proportion of the total number of responses. The two fixed distributions were divisions of 100%/0% or 67%/33%. Also, in every contest either subject could make a response that would end the contest prematurely and give both subjects the same amount—a sum equal to 33% of the competitive total. In the two feedback conditions, cumulative responses by each subject were either shown to both subjects during the contest or were not shown. The proportional distribution was clearly superior to either of the fixed distributions in number of responses produced across contests. The proportional distribution with feedback produced the largest number of competitive responses, and the 100%/0% distribution without feedback produced the smallest number. Differences among distributions typically emerged only during later blocks of contests. Fixed distributions of rewards often produced decelerating rates of responding, with losing competitors ending the contests before they were completed. Response-rate decreases were greatest for pairs in which the 2 subjects differed most in their response rates and proportion of wins. The presence of feedback had a small effect, increasing responding for some pairs in the 100%/0% distribution. Performance patterns were interpreted in terms of the consequences arranged for the individual participants by the reward distributions and differences in performance between competitors.     

运动竞赛焦虑量表中国常模的修订

运动竞赛焦虑量表是由美国的马腾斯专为运动员编制的特质焦虑量表。它是一种与特定的情境相结合的、能够有效地测出被测者通常在运动竞赛(或游戏)时焦虑水平的量表。我们在全国六大区十四个省市抽取了2,988名被试,修订了10—12岁(男、女),13—15岁(男、女),16—18岁(男、女)和19—25岁(男、女)的八个常模。同时,进行了效度和信度检验。本量表可以作为对业余的或专业的运动员进行运动竞赛焦虑的诊断与研究用。     

浅谈信号检测论在广告再认测试中的应用与修正

信号检测论（SDT）是一种借助数学形式研究信息传输系统中“接受者”操作的理论。自50年代以来已被广泛地应用于心理学、市场营销等各种研究领域。本文论述了SDT应用于广告再认测试的原因、引进SDT后遇到的困难以及研究者为此作出的相应修正,最后对这些修正方法进行了简要的评价。     

Rethinking the Fallacy of Hasty Generalization

This paper makes a case for a refined look at the so- called fallacy of hasty generalization by arguing that this expression is an umbrella term for two fallacies already distinguished by Aristotle. One is the fallacy of generalizing in an inappropriate way from a particular instance to a universal generalization containing a for all x quantification. The other is the secundum quid (in a certain respect) fallacy of moving to a conclusion that is supposed to be a universal generalization containing a for all x quantification while overlooking qualifications that have to be added to the more limited kind of generalization expressed in the premise. It is shown that these two fallacies relate to two different kinds of generalization.The classification of fallacious generalizations is based on a new theory of generalization that distinguishes three kinds of generalizations – the universal generalization of the for all x type, used in classical deductive logic, the inductive generalization, based on probability, and the presumptive generalization, which is defeasible, and allows for exceptions to a general rule. The resulting classification goes beyond a logic-oriented analysis by taking into account how a respondent may oppose a potentially fallacious generalizing move by falsifying it. Using a dialectical interpretation of premise-conclusion complexes, the paper outline a richer concept of generalizing argument moves embedded in a communicational reconstruction of the strategic uses of such moves in which two parties take part in an orderly dialectical exchange of viewpoints.     

Comparison of Different Feedback Procedures in Second Language Vocabulary Learning

Research into the learning of Second Language (SL) vocabulary by beginning learners has indicated that the simultaneous presentation of the First and Second Language words results in blocking of the learning process by the familiar First Language (FL) word. Previous research also suggests that blocking by the First Language can be eliminated by bringing it in as informative feedback (either as a written or spoken word). Our experiments were designed to further extend this research. The use of a picture, either as feedback or simultaneously presented with its equivalent, along with the aural feedback and the conventional procedures were investigated in Experiment 1. Results revealed that pictures blocked the learning process less than the written FL word when both were presented with their SL referent. When used as feedback, however, pictures were not as good as the spoken FL word. Experiment 2 demonstrated that aural feedback was the best type of feedback when compared with the picture and written FL presentations, and that the picture feedback was better than the written feedback. Taken together, the results of these two studies showed that all forms of feedback overcame the problem of blocking created by simultaneous presentation of the FL and SL words, and that aural feedback was the most effective feedback procedure. It was suggested that the superiority of aural feedback was likely to be a consequence of the use of a different input channel to that of the visually presented written SL word.     

结构限制和信息干扰对双重作业绩效的影响

研究通过改变双重任务呈现的间隔时间来探讨结构限制与信息干扰对双重任务操作绩效的影响。实验结果表明：(1)两种作业呈现的间隔时间对双重任务操作绩效有明显的影响。间隔时间越大,双重任务的作业绩效越高。(2)信息干扰对双重任务的操作有明显的影响。信息干扰越大,双重任务的操作绩效越差。(3)两个作业呈现的间隔时间不同并不影响信息干扰对双重任务操作绩效的作用。根据实验结果,该研究提出了三因素假设：结构限制、信息干扰和资源竞争是影响双重任务操作绩效的三个主要因素。     

Cue competition between elementary trained stimuli: US miscuing, interference, and US omission

The present series of experiments was designed to assess whether rule-based accounts of Pavlovian learning can account for cue competition effects observed after elemental training. All experiments involved initial differential conditioning training with A-US and B alone presentations. Miscuing refers to the fact that responding to A is impaired after one B-US presentation whereas interference is the impairment of responding to A after presentation of C-US pairings. Omission refers to the effects on B of A alone presentations. Experiments 1-2a provided clear evidence for miscuing whereas interference was not found after 1, 5 or 10 C-US pairings. Moreover, Experiments 3 and 3a found only weak evidence for interference in an A-US, B ∣ C-US, D ∣ A design used previously to show the effect. Experiments 4 and 5 failed to find any effect of US omission after one or five omission trials. The present results indicate that miscuing is more robust than is the interference effect. Moreover, the asymmetrical effects of US miscuing and US omission are difficult to accommodate within rule-based accounts of Pavlovian conditioning.     

Effects of trait anger and anger expression style on competitive attack responses in a wartime prisoner’s dilemma game

We assessed the role of trait anger and anger expression style on competitive/aggressive decision making and responding. In a 100‐trial iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma (IPD), with instructions to simulate wartime interactions, competition/aggression was defined as “attacking the opponent,” and “waiting for troop reinforcements” was the noncompetitive alternative response. Prior to play, 92 university student players completed the State‐Trait Anger Expression Inventory. They were then paired to play the IPD against partners of similar or dissimilar trait anger levels. At postplay, the State Anger scale was readministered. Results showed significant preplay to postplay increases in state anger, with greater increases shown by high trait anger players. Thus, high trait anger players were especially subject to arousal. Players in the high trait anger group made more competitive/attack responses, and they were more likely to do so when paired with a high trait anger partner. As a result of the high level of competitive/aggressive play, both groups ended with a negative troop count. Trait anger as a general personality temperament was predictive of state anger, competitive/attack responses, and the number of trials before a retaliation was made. The expressive style of anger‐control was also related to manner of play. Trait anger had strong direct and indirect effects through anger control on the number of competitive attack responses. It was concluded that trait anger, especially trait anger/temperament, and anger control difficulties may be toxic personality factors in decision making and competitive behavior. Aggr. Behav. 28:117–125, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

How marketers can use celebrities to sell more effectively

The first part of this paper summarises the key points about the use of celebrities in advertising, sets this particular creative technique in context and demonstrates how significant its return on investment can be. In the second part the paper goes on to report a more detailed analysis of the ‘celebrity’ case histories among the winners in the IPA Effectiveness Awards, and how practitioners have applied celebrity use to brands to make exceptional impacts on profitability.     

运动员咀嚼口香糖行为与竞赛焦虑的关系

为考察运动员咀嚼口香糖行为与竞赛焦虑的关系,本研究采用自编《咀嚼口香糖与竞赛焦虑问卷CGSCA》与《运动竞赛焦虑测验SCAT》,调查了457名运动员。结果发现,SCAT表明,运动员在竞赛情景下普遍处于应激状态并容易体验到焦虑;CGSCA表明,竞赛咀嚼行为与竞赛焦虑存在显著正相关,竞赛焦虑高的个体拥有更多的竞赛咀嚼行为,并更多地采用咀嚼口香糖的方式来缓解竞赛焦虑。本研究表明,咀嚼口香糖可以缓解运动员的竞赛焦虑。