Feedback functions for variable-interval reinforcement

On a given variable-interval schedule, the average obtained rate of reinforcement depends on the average rate of responding. An expression for this feedback effect is derived from the assumptions that free-operant responding occurs in bursts with a constant tempo, alternating with periods of engagement in other activities; that the durations of bursts and other activities are exponentially distributed; and that the rates of initiating and terminating bursts are inversely related. The expression provides a satisfactory account of the data of three experiments.     

主动控制感在大脑表征中的时空标记

主动控制感是主动动作过程中产生的控制自身动作, 进而控制外部环境的主观体验。构成动作主动控制感的核心要素是主观意图与结果反馈。本研究试图通过操控这两个核心要素的不同属性, 借助脑磁图等技术, 探寻主动控制感在大脑额-顶为主的脑网络中前-后馈的作用方式及时空特异性标记, 并建构新的认知神经理论模型。这将有利于理解人类动作的产生及后效、为相关精神类疾病的临床诊断提供更加客观的参照标准。     

Safety of bicyclists in roundabouts with mixed traffic: Video analyses of behavioural and surrogate safety indicators

Although converting an intersection into a roundabout has been shown to result in fewer injury accidents for both motor vehicle drivers and pedestrians, the effect on bicyclists’ safety is unclear or even negative. This study focuses on roundabouts without bicycle facilities (i.e., mixed traffic conditions) and makes use of semi-automated video observation software with the aim of analysing bicyclists’ behaviour and safety on roundabouts with different diameter. Four urban roundabouts in Belgium are observed. Interactions between bicyclists and other vehicles are analysed using speed, lateral position and five indicators to describe the closeness of interactions (TTC_min, PET, T_{2 min}, lateral overtaking proximity and minimum distance headway). Additionally, the lateral position and riding speed of bicyclists that are in interaction with other vehicles is compared with the behaviour of bicyclists that are not in interaction with other vehicles.The behavioural analysis revealed that regardless of the type of condition (free-flow bicyclists or different interactions bicyclist-car), bicyclists always ride faster on roundabouts with big diameter and slower on roundabouts with small diameter. Moreover, bicyclists ride closer to the central island on roundabouts with big diameter compared to roundabouts with small diameter for all the conditions analysed.The analysis of surrogate safety indicators (TTC_min, PET, T_{2 min}) revealed that close interactions between bicyclists and cars are relatively frequent at both small and big roundabouts. The percentages of close interactions are more or less equal for roundabouts with big diameter (7.86% of observed interactions) and roundabouts with small diameter (8.24%). The analysis of the indicators to describe the closeness of interactions also showed that the closest interactions at roundabouts are all situations where the bicyclist has a leading role. The analysis of the most common types of close interactions revealed indeed that the most common close interactions are interactions where the bicyclist is entering the roundabout. The analysis of lateral overtaking proximity showed that bicyclists who overtake a car take smaller lateral overtaking proximities compared to cars overtaking a bicyclist. The analysis of minimum distance headway finally revealed that bicyclists who ride behind a car take smaller distance headways compared to cars driving behind a bicyclist.     

Discrete‐trial training performance of behavior interventionists with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic replication and extension

Further research is needed on strategies to improve employment outcomes for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We replicated and extended prior research by examining the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of discrete‐trial training (DTT) performance of adults with ASD who were interested in careers as behavior technicians. Three participants received training on how to implement DTT with children and we assessed the maintenance and generalization of DTT performance in the absence of feedback. Results indicated that procedural integrity generalized across children and targets and maintained for 6 to 17 session days without feedback. Results have implications for the successful employment of individuals with ASD as behavior technicians and for future research on strategies to enhance their performance on the job.     

Audio Feedback with Reduced Self-focus as an Intervention for Social Anxiety: An Experimental Study

Background and Objectives: Socially anxious individuals tend to underestimate their performance largely due to attentional bias. Video and audio feedback (AF) with cognitive preparation (CP) have shown to improve socially anxious individuals′ evaluation of their performance in previous studies. In the present study, it was hypothesized that one of the three steps in CP, reduced self-focus (RS), is sufficient to cause an improved voice evaluation after AF. This was tested in a single-session randomized controlled experiment. Method: Forty-one socially anxious participants were asked to give a speech, then to listen to and evaluate a taped recording of their performance. Half of the sample were instructed to reduce their self-focus prior to AF, the rest received AF only. RS involved asking participants to listen to the audio recording as though they were listening to a stranger. Generalization effects were assessed by a second speech. Results: AF with RS led to more improved voice evaluations than AF-only after the first speech, and the effects remained in the evaluation of the second speech. More positive speech evaluations were associated with corresponding reductions of performance anxiety.Limitations: small sample, analogue study. Conclusion: One component of cognitive preparation—(RS)—appears to be sufficient to cause significant effects on voice evaluation in socially anxious individuals. If the results are replicated in clinical samples, AF with RS may be a promising intervention in the treatment of social anxiety.     

社交网站真实自我呈现对生活满意度的影响:线上积极反馈和一般自我概念的链式中介作用

为探讨社交网站真实自我呈现、线上积极反馈、一般自我概念和青少年生活满意度的关系,采用社交网站真实自我呈现问卷、线上积极反馈问卷、一般自我概念量表和生活满意度量表对554名中学生进行调查,结果发现:(1)社交网站真实自我呈现、线上积极反馈、一般自我概念和生活满意度两两之间显著正相关;(2)社交网站真实自我呈现对生活满意度没有直接预测作用,但能通过三条路径的间接作用影响青少年生活满意度:通过线上积极反馈的中介作用;通过一般自我概念的中介作用;通过线上积极反馈和一般自我概念的链式中介作用。研究结果进一步揭示社交网站真实自我呈现对生活满意度的作用机制,能为社交网络时代的青少年发展自我概念与提升生活满意度提供有益建议。     

Counterfactual Evaluation of Outcomes in Social Risk Decision-Making Situations: The Cognitive Developmental Paradox Revisited

We report a study that examined the existence of a cognitive developmental paradox in the counterfactual evaluation of decision-making outcomes. According to this paradox adolescents and young adults could be able to apply counterfactual reasoning and, yet, their counterfactual evaluation of outcomes could be biased in a salient socio-emotional context. To this aim, we analyzed the impact of health and social feedback on the counterfactual evaluation of outcomes in a laboratory decision-making task involving short narratives with the presence of peers. Forty risky (e.g., taking or refusing a drug), forty neutral decisions (e.g., eating a hamburger or a hotdog), and emotions felt following positive or negative outcomes were examined in 256 early, mid- and late adolescents, and young adults, evenly distributed. Results showed that emotional ratings to negative outcomes (regret and disappointment) but not to positive outcomes (relief and elation) were attenuated when feedback was provided. Evidence of development of cognitive decision-making capacities did also exist, as the capacity to perform faster emotional ratings and to differentially allocate more resources to the elaboration of emotional ratings when no feedback information was available increased with age. Overall, we interpret these findings as challenging the traditional cognitive developmental assumption that development necessarily proceeds from lesser to greater capacities, reflecting the impact of socio-emotional processes that could bias the counterfactual evaluation of social decision-making outcomes.     

反馈效价影响家族相似性类别学习的ERPs研究

采用事件相关电位技术,以大学生为被试,运用被试间实验设计探讨反馈效价（积极反馈,消极反馈）对家族相似性类别学习的影响。研究结果表明,行为结果上相比积极反馈,消极反馈在推理测验中的成绩显著优于积极反馈。脑电结果上,P200,P300和FRN均与家族相似性类别学习中的反馈加工有关;家族相似性类别学习中,积极反馈与消极反馈存在不对称性。相比于无反馈的条件,P300对消极反馈更加的敏感,消极反馈诱发更大的波幅,而P300对于有无积极反馈并不敏感。说明消极反馈条件下,吸引学习者投入更多的注意资源进行认知加工。此外,相比无反馈条件下,消极反馈条件下FRN有更大的激活,说明了消极反馈对被试以后的行为起着更大的调节作用。总之,研究表明相比于积极反馈,消极反馈对家族相似性类别学习更加有效,错误驱动发挥较大作用。     

A comparison of performance feedback procedures on teachers' treatment implementation integrity and students' inappropriate behavior in special education classrooms

This study examined the extent to which treatment integrity of 4 special education teachers was affected by goal setting, performance feedback regarding student or teacher performance, and a meeting cancellation contingency. Teachers were trained to implement function-based treatment packages to address student problem behavior. In one condition, teachers set a goal for student behavior and received daily written feedback about student performance. In a second condition, teachers received daily written feedback about student performance as well as their own accuracy in implementing the intervention and would be able to avoid meeting with a consultant to practice missed steps by implementing the intervention with 100% integrity. This latter package increased treatment integrity the most above baseline levels. Higher levels of treatment integrity were significantly correlated with lower levels of student problem behavior for 3 of the 4 teacher-student dyads. Three of the 4 teachers also rated both feedback procedures as highly acceptable. Implications for increasing and maintaining treatment integrity by teachers via a consultation model are discussed.