Increased distractibility in schizotypy: Independent of individual differences in working memory capacity?

Individuals with schizophrenia typically show increased levels of distractibility. This has been attributed to impaired working memory capacity (WMC), since lower WMC is typically associated with higher distractibility, and schizophrenia is typically associated with impoverished WMC. Here, participants performed verbal and spatial serial recall tasks that were accompanied by to-be-ignored speech tokens. For the few trials wherein one speech token was replaced with a different token, impairment was produced to task scores (a deviation effect). Participants subsequently completed a schizotypy questionnaire and a WMC measure. Higher schizotypy scores were associated with lower WMC (as measured with operation span, OSPAN), but WMC and schizotypy scores explained unique variance in relation to the mean magnitude of the deviation effect. These results suggest that schizotypy is associated with heightened domain-general distractibility, but that this is independent of its relationship with WMC.     

Communicative functions of directional verbal probabilities: Speaker’s choice,listener’s inference,and reference points

Verbal probabilities have directional communicative functions, and most can be categorized as positive (e.g., “it is likely”) or negative (e.g., “it is doubtful”). We examined the communicative functions of verbal probabilities based on the reference point hypothesis According to this hypothesis, listeners are sensitive to and can infer a speaker’s reference points based on the speaker’s selected directionality. In four experiments (two of which examined speakers’ choice of directionality and two of which examined listeners’ inferences about a speaker’s reference point), we found that listeners could make inferences about speakers’ reference points based on the stated directionality of verbal probability. Thus, the directionality of verbal probabilities serves the communicative function of conveying information about a speaker’s reference point.     

The role of instructions in the variability of sex-related differences in multiple-choice tests

When both experts and lay people interpret data on sex-related differences, they usually forget that the instruments for data collection might be provoking such differences. This experiment, carried out on 240 participants, focused on the effects of four instruction/scoring conditions on sex effect size in two computerized tests — vocabulary and mental rotation, for which sex-related differences had been shown to be, respectively, small (favoring females) and large (favoring males). Given the caution which seems to characterize female performance, our general hypothesis predicted that, under instructions encouraging guessing, effect sizes favoring males would augment and effect sizes favoring females would diminish. The opposite results were expected under instructions discouraging guessing. Some supporting evidence was found.     

FUNCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE USE OF PROCEDURAL TIMEOUT AND AN EFFECTIVE ALTERNATIVE1

Two single-subject experiments were conducted with students in special preschool classes. In Experiment I, the subject's disruptive, appropriate, and inappropriate play behaviors were measured as a function of three independent variables: reinforcement, a typical timeout procedure, and regularly paced teacher instructions. In an ABA reversal within a multiple baseline across two teachers, all three independent variables comprised the A conditions and procedural timeout was omitted in B. Experiment II examined a second subject's appropriate and inappropriate eating as a function of the same three variables. Two teachers conducted baseline and paced instruction-plus-reinforcement conditions in multiple baseline across teachers. Subsequently, one teacher performed a series of reversals and replications with various combinations of a typical timeout procedure and reinforcement mixed with paced instructions. The results of both experiments suggest that timeout did not produce response decrement in a punishment paradigm, but rather produced response increment in a negative reinforcement paradigm. These results prevailed, even though a reinforcer was operating in the environment before introducing timeout. Paced instructions (delivering instructions to the child at a set pace regardless of the child's behavior) appears to be an alternative when timeout is not effective and, in conjunction with reinforcement, was demonstrated to reduce inappropriate behavior to near zero.     

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF A PROGRAM FOR TRAINING HIGH AND LOW PREFERENCE PEERS TO MODIFY DISRUPTIVE CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR1

Although considerable evidence has accumulated regarding the effectivenes of peers as behavior managers, little attention has been directed toward the analysis of components of training programs. Also, it is not known whether high and low preference peers have different reinforcing effects. In this study, a two-phase peer training program was introduced to five high preference and five low preference peer managers. The Managers were assigned one to each of 10 grade-four elementary pupils with high rates of disruptive behavior. Peer Training I was composed of instructions to monitor and reinforce target subject behavior on a time-sample schedule, to record this reinforcement, and to ignore inappropriate behavior in target subjects. Peer Training II introduced, in addition, backup reinforcement for the monitoring behavior of managers. Measures were taken of target subject behavior, antecedent and consequent attention from managers and other peers, monitoring behavior of managers, teacher behavior, and preference ratings of peer managers by target subjects. Significant improvements in target subject behavior occurred following Peer Training I and further improvements occurred following Peer Training II. These changes were paralleled by decreases in the frequency of antecedent and consequent manager attention to problem behaviors, and improvements in the number and accuracy of monitoring checks. Recorded reductions in teacher attention to individual children and to target subjects were not statistically significant. Posttest preference scores improved significantly over pretest scores for low preference managers, while remaining high for high preference managers.     

“要有创造性”指导语效应及其对创造性教学的启示

“要有创造性”指导语效应（effects of explicit instructions to“be creative”）,是指在创造力测验或实验任务中,明确要求“要有创造性”（be creative）的指导语,能够促进被试的创造性表现的现象。该效应的理论解释主要有最大化表现理论、目标设置理论和注意控制理论。在指导语中对“创造性”作出解释、创造性任务的类型以及被试特征,都会影响“要有创造性”指导语效应的产生。在创造性教学过程中,可以根据“要有创造性”指导语效应发生的机制,从设置创造性目标、根据任务特征施加精细指导、结合学生特征实施个性化教学三个方面,设计创造性活动,以促进学生创新能力的发展。