Filial maturity: Analysis and reconceptualization

The concept of filial maturity has often been utilized to describe the nature and quality of the adult parent-child relationship. This paper will critically evaluate filial maturity as a central construct for understanding filial relations, present a reconceptualization of the concept, and identify areas for further empirical and conceptual elaboration.     

Putting virtues in context: engaging the VIA classification of character strengths in caregiving for orphans and vulnerable children across cultures

ABSTRACT

The VIA Classification of Character Strengths has broken important ground for measuring character strengths across cultures. Because the VIA Classification is a closed system of abstract strengths, however, it is unknown how end-users engage strengths in particular cultural and practical contexts, define strengths for themselves, or identify additional strengths. In this study, residential care directors (n = 18) and other caregivers (n = 64) for orphans and vulnerable children (OVCs) in five distinct global locations prioritized with a card-sort the VIA Character Strengths most important for the work of caregiving, defined these strengths, and proposed additional strengths. Supervisors were then asked how caregivers embodied their prioritized strengths. Participants most frequently prioritized Love, Honesty, Forgiveness, and Kindness as important for caregiving; demonstrated high concordance but also some deviation from the definitions of the VIA Classification; and proposed additional strengths (e.g. Caring, Self-drive, and Initiative) that were perceived not to overlap with existing VIA Character Strengths.     

The effects of mortality reminders on posttraumatic growth and finding benefits among patients with life-threatening illness and their caregivers

Individuals confronted with a life-threatening illness often report posttraumatic growth (PTG) or finding benefits in disease. These positive evaluations of personal strength, perceptions of improved personal relations and new possibilities may represent a defensive response (cf Janus-face model). Three studies investigated the effects of mortality reminders on reports of PTG or benefit findings among people living with life-threatening illness or their caregivers. 80 people living with HIV (Study 1), 164 breast cancer survivors (Study 2) and 50 family caregivers for a patient with Huntington Disease (Study 3) were randomly assigned to the experimental (mortality reminders) or control conditions. Across three studies, those exposed to mortality reminders reported lower PTG or benefit finding, compared to the controls. These effects were moderated by time elapsed since diagnosis: mortality reminders led to lower PTG/benefit finding among those who received the diagnosis more recently. The results provide an insight into the defensive character of PTG/finding benefits in illness and changes in the function of these beliefs over time elapsing since diagnosis.     

The nature of caregiving in children of a parent with multiple sclerosis from multiple sources and the associations between caregiving activities and youth adjustment overtime

This study explored youth caregiving for a parent with multiple sclerosis (MS) from multiple perspectives, and examined associations between caregiving and child negative (behavioural emotional difficulties, somatisation) and positive (life satisfaction, positive affect, prosocial behaviour) adjustment outcomes overtime. A total of 88 families participated; 85 parents with MS, 55 partners and 130 children completed questionnaires at Time 1. Child caregiving was assessed by the Youth Activities of Caregiving Scale (YACS). Child and parent questionnaire data were collected at Time 1 and child data were collected 12 months later (Time 2). Factor analysis of the child and parent YACS data replicated the four factors (instrumental, social-emotional, personal-intimate, domestic-household care), all of which were psychometrically sound. The YACS factors were related to parental illness and caregiving context variables that reflected increased caregiving demands. The Time 1 instrumental and social-emotional care domains were associated with poorer Time 2 adjustment, whereas personal-intimate was related to better adjustment and domestic-household care was unrelated to adjustment. Children and their parents exhibited highest agreement on personal-intimate, instrumental and total caregiving, and least on domestic-household and social-emotional care. Findings delineate the key dimensions of young caregiving in MS and the differential links between caregiving activities and youth adjustment.     

Approach-avoidance responses to infant facial expressions in nulliparous women: Associations with early experience and mood induction

Infant expressions are important signals for eliciting caregiving behaviors in parents. The present study sought to test if infant expressions affect adults’ behavioral response, taking into account the role of a mood induction and childhood caregiving experiences. A modified version of the Approach Avoidance Task (AAT) was employed to study nulliparous female university students’ implicit responses to infant faces with different expressions. Study 1 showed that sad, neutral and sleepy expressions elicit a tendency for avoidance, while no tendency for approach or avoidance was found for happy faces. Notably, differences between approach and avoidance response latencies for sad faces and participants’ negative caregiving experiences were positively correlated (r = 0.30, p = 0.04, Bonferroni corrected), indicating that individuals who experienced insensitive parental care show more bias toward sad infant faces. In Study 2, we manipulated participants' current mood (inducing sad and happy mood by asking to recall a happy or sad event of their recent life) before the AAT. Results showed that sad mood enhanced the bias toward sad faces that is buffered by positive mood induction. In conclusion, these findings indicate that implicit approach avoidance behaviors in females depend on the emotional expression of infant faces and are associated with childhood caregiving experiences and current mood.     

Hegemonic masculinity versus a caring masculinity: Implications for understanding primary caregiving fathers

Recently, there has been a growing interest in what is positioned as a new form of masculinity arising from the increase in fathers as primary caregivers. This new form is referred to as a “caring masculinity” and is theorised as a radical shift away from traditional or hegemonic forms of masculinity. This paper critically examines the fathering literature, focusing specifically on how primary caregiving fathers navigate social norms with regard to masculinity. The paper concludes that there is a complex interplay between expectations of a traditional, provider father and a new and involved father. It is argued that ideas surrounding a caring masculinity are better understood as a broadening of hegemonic masculinity, rather than an entirely new or distinct form.     

The cross-cultural validity of the Caregiving Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ) among Danish mothers with preschool children

The present study explored the Danish cross-cultural validity of the Caregiving Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ), a new measure of caregiving representations in parent-child relationships. Low-risk Danish mothers (N = 159) with children aged 1.5–5 years completed the CEQ and predictive validity measures of parenting stress and child behavior problems. Exploratory factor analyses supported a four-factor model. Analyses showed significant theoretically meaningful associations between the CEQ scales and predictive validity measures. The current study adds evidence to the cross-cultural validity of the CEQ.     

Evaluating the Impact of Elder Cottage Housing on Residents and Their Hosts

Family members who wish to have their older relatives live with them often encounter obstacles that make such an arrangement unworkable. Proponents of the Elder Cottage, and its variant, the Homecare Suite, suggest that many of these obstacles can be avoided with Elder Cottage use. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of Elder Cottages on a variety of resident and host outcomes. A nonequivalent comparison group design was used. Thirty-one treatment group residents and their hosts received Elder Cottages whereas 24 comparison group residents and their hosts remained on a waiting list. Results showed that residents using Elder Cottages reported significantly greater satisfaction with their housing, increased independence, more telephone contacts with friends and family, improved relationships with hosts, more accessible housing, and less formal service use than those in the comparison group. Similarly, hosts in the treatment group reported significantly greater satisfaction with the residents' housing and less stress in their caregiving roles than those in the comparison group. In addition, fewer Elder Cottage hosts than comparison group hosts engaged in caregiver-related driving. Answers to short-answer questions mirrored the quantitative findings. These results provide substantial optimism with respect to the Elder Cottage as a housing option for older adults, although interviews with housing specialists suggested that families will need financial and caregiving assistance for this option to be viable.     

Taking care of one's own: justice and family caregiving

This paper asks whether adult children have aduty of justice to act as caregivers for theirfrail, elderly parents. I begin (Sections I.and II.) by locating the historical reasons whyrelationships within families were not thoughtto raise issues of justice. I argue that thesereasons are misguided. The paper next presentsspecific examples showing the relevance ofjustice to family relationships. I point outthat in the United States today, the burden ofcaregiving for dependent parents fallsdisproportionately on women (Sections III. andIV.). The paper goes on to use Rawls'theoretical tool of the veil of ignorance toargue that caring for parents should not belinked to a person's sex and more generally,that there is no duty of justice to assume therole of caregiver for dependent parents(Sections V.). Although justice does notprovide the moral foundations for parent care,I show that it nonetheless places importantlimits on the instinct to care. I concludethat the voice of justice should be audible,and is intrinsically present, withinfamilies.