Spreading the words: A spacing effect in vocabulary learning

The spacing effect refers to the frequently observed finding that distributing learning across time leads to better retention than massing it into one single study session. In the present study, we examined whether the spacing effect generalises to primary school vocabulary learning. To this aim, children from Grade 3 were taught the meaning of 15 new words using a massed procedure and 15 other new words using a spaced procedure. The 15 words in the massed condition were divided into three sets of five words, and each set was taught three times in one of three learning sessions. In the spaced condition, learning was distributed across the three sessions: All 15 words were practised once in each of the three learning sessions. At the retention tests after 1 week and after 5 weeks we observed that the meaning of spaced words was remembered better than the meaning of massed words.     

Learning climate scale: Construction,reliability and initial validity evidence

The current study developed an instrument for measuring learning climate in organizations. A review of the organizational learning and facilitation of workplace learning literature resulted in three theoretically relevant dimensions referring to facilitation, appreciation, and error avoidance. The 3-dimensional learning climate scale (LCS) was tested in a heterogeneous sample of Dutch wage earners (N = 1013). Confirmatory factor analysis and analysis of measurement invariance were conducted to establish the factorial structure of the measure. Also, convergent, divergent, and construct validity of the LCS were investigated. The findings showed that the newly developed instrument for learning climate has good psychometric properties: the three-factor structure was supported and the sub-scales were reliable. Furthermore, the LCS showed good convergent and divergent validity.     

Early formal schooling: Are we promoting achievement or anxiety?

The resurgence of interest in early childhood education has been accompanied by an active debate about the most developmentally beneficial approach to preschool instruction. Some experts and the major early childhood organizations in this country advocate a child-centered or developmentally appropriate approach, whereas other experts advocate a teacher-directed, didactic approach. Until recently, the empirical evidence available to inform this controversy has been woefully thin. This article reviews the social and theoretical parameters of this debate about preschool instruction, articulates the core dimensions that have been portrayed as distinguishing child- from teacher-directed curricula, and examines the available research that can inform the debate. Our conclusions support those who encourage the adoption of child-centered curricula. Didactic approaches appear to undermine young children's motivation in and enjoyment of school in the short term and to have either neutral or negative ramifications for long-term achievement, despite some evidence of short-term gains.     

Systemic and local administration of estradiol into the prefrontal cortex or hippocampus differentially alters working memory

The influence of estradiol on learning and memory is dependent on a number of factors. The effects of physiological levels of estradiol on the acquisition of a spatial working memory task mediated by the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the hippocampus were examined in Experiment 1. Ovariectomized Long-Evans rats received daily injections of estradiol or vehicle were tested on the win-shift version of the radial arm maze. A high dose of estradiol benzoate (5 microg) enhanced acquisition of the task, whereas a low dose of estradiol (0.3 microg) increased the number of errors committed over 17 days of testing. Experiment 2 was conducted to examine site-specific influences of estradiol on spatial working memory in well-trained rats. Saline and estradiol cyclodextrin (0.1 and 0.9 microg) were infused into the prelimbic region of the PFC or dorsal hippocampus 40 min prior to testing on the win-shift task. Infusions of estradiol into both brain areas attenuated saline-infusion disruptions in working memory. Specifically, the higher dose of estradiol facilitated working memory when infused into the PFC, whereas the lower dose of estradiol facilitated performance when infused into the dorsal hippocampus. Moreover, working memory was significantly impaired 24 h after infusions of estradiol into the dorsal hippocampus but not the PFC. These data provide further evidence for the notion that estradiol can dose-dependently alter memory processes and suggest that facilitation or disruptions of working memory by estradiol are site- and time-specific.     

Inhibition and shifting in children with learning deficits in arithmetic and reading

The executive functions of inhibition and shifting were studied in arithmetic-disabled children, reading-disabled children, reading plus arithmetic-disabled children, and controls (N = 74). Measures involved the rapid naming of objects, digits, letters, or quantities with or without additional task requirements that reflected inhibition or shifting. Also, the Making Trails task, reflecting shifting, was administered. For tasks without executive demands, arithmetic-disabled children were slower in the naming of digits and quantities, whereas reading-disabled children were slower in the naming of digits and letters. For the executive tasks, arithmetic-disabled children as well as reading plus arithmetic-disabled children were impaired on the Making Trails task and on an object naming task that required both inhibition and shifting. Reading-disabled children exhibited no problems in executive functioning. Furthermore, it was shown that reading plus arithmetic-disabled children experienced the combination of problems that characterize children with a single learning deficit.     

Learning and transfer from a simple dynamic system

The amount of learning gained from being assisted in completing the task of bringing a predator-prey system into equilibrium by controlling the predator population was investigated. Learning was explored both by post-task questioning and by testing for transfer to another predator-prey task. Participants were 28 undergraduate psychology students, all female. They were randomly and evenly split into an experiment group that was subjected to a learning session with the first task before being tested in the second task, and a control group that only performed the second task. What was most needed in the first task was help in sticking to analytically derived conclusions by resisting "common sense" responses. There was a significant transfer effect on performance to the second task, stemming from learning shown by half the participants in the experiment group. The other half showed hardly any learning. Learning in about half the subjects has proven a stable finding.     

Modeling parallelization and flexibility improvements in skill acquisition: from dual tasks to complex dynamic skills

Emerging parallel processing and increased flexibility during the acquisition of cognitive skills form a combination that is hard to reconcile with rule-based models that often produce brittle behavior. Rule-based models can exhibit these properties by adhering to 2 principles: that the model gradually learns task-specific rules from instructions and experience, and that bottom-up processing is used whenever possible. In a model of learning perfect time-sharing in dual tasks (Schumacher et al., 2001), speedup learning and bottom-up activation of instructions can explain parallel behavior. In a model of a complex dynamic task (Carnegie Mellon University Aegis Simulation Program [CMU-ASP], Anderson et al., 2004), parallel behavior is explained by the transition from serially organized instructions to rules that are activated by both top-down (goal-driven) and bottom-up (perceptually driven) factors. Parallelism lets the model opportunistically reorder instructions, leading to the gradual emergence of new task strategies.     

Hippocampal c-fos is necessary for long-term memory of a socially transmitted food preference

The present article examined the requirement of hippocampal c-Fos for learning a socially transmitted food preference (STFP). We reported previously that expression of the c-Fos protein is increased in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus of rats trained on the STFP (Countryman, Orlowski, Brightwell, Oskowitz, & Colombo, 2005). Pretraining intrahippocampal antisense to the immediate early gene c-fos was administered to adult male Long-Evans rats to determine if c-fos expression is necessary for either short- or long-term memory for STFP. Guide cannulae were implanted bilaterally into the dorsal hippocampus. Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) were administered unilaterally either 6.5, 8.5, 10.5, or 12.5 h prior to STFP training while either sense ODNs or saline were infused into the opposite hemisphere. Immunocytochemistry was performed, and cells showing c-Fos immunoreactivity (ir) were counted from the antisense-treated hemisphere and compared to cell counts from the control hemisphere. The results indicated significant suppression of learning-induced c-Fos protein at the 8.5 and 10.5 infusion-train intervals. Additional rats were implanted with cannulae into the dorsal and ventral hippocampus, and antisense ODNs, sense ODNs, or saline were administered bilaterally 8.5h prior to training. Rats were tested immediately and 14 days after training. Rats in all groups showed a significant preference for the demonstrated food at the short-term memory test. At the long-term memory test, however, rats infused with c-fos antisense showed no preference for the demonstrated food whereas rats infused with either sense or saline maintained their preference. The present findings suggest that c-fos is necessary for consolidation of non-spatial hippocampal-dependent memory.     

Acquiring new spatial intuitions: learning to reason about rotations

There are certain simple rotations of objects that most people cannot reason about accurately. Reliable gaps in the understanding of a fundamental physical domain raise the question of how learning to reason in that domain might proceed. Using virtual reality techniques, this project investigated the nature of learning to reason across the domain of simple rotations. Learning consisted of the acquisition of spatial intuitions: there was encoding of useful spatiotemporal information in specific problem types and a gradual accumulation of this understanding across the domain. This pattern of learning through the accumulation of intuitions is especially interesting for rotational motion, in which an elegant domain-wide kinematics is available to support insightful learning. Individual ability to reason about rotations correlated highly with mastery motivation, skill in fluid reasoning, and skill in reasoning about spatial transformations. Thus, general cognitive advantages aided the understanding of individual rotations without guaranteeing immediate generalization across the domain.     

Speech segmentation by statistical learning depends on attention

We addressed the hypothesis that word segmentation based on statistical regularities occurs without the need of attention. Participants were presented with a stream of artificial speech in which the only cue to extract the words was the presence of statistical regularities between syllables. Half of the participants were asked to passively listen to the speech stream, while the other half were asked to perform a concurrent task. In Experiment 1, the concurrent task was performed on a separate auditory stream (noises), in Experiment 2 it was performed on a visual stream (pictures), and in Experiment 3 it was performed on pitch changes in the speech stream itself. Invariably, passive listening to the speech stream led to successful word extraction (as measured by a recognition test presented after the exposure phase), whereas diverted attention led to a dramatic impairment in word segmentation performance. These findings demonstrate that when attentional resources are depleted, word segmentation based on statistical regularities is seriously compromised.