Reducing uncertainty by anticipation in traffic – The effect of situational characteristics and criticality on behavioral,subjective, and psychophysiological parameters

Uncertainty in traffic may have fatal consequences when operating a vehicle. Enabling drivers to anticipate the behavior of other traffic participants can help reduce uncertainty and thus increase traffic safety. A multi-method approach using behavioral, subjective, and psychophysiological measures was applied to investigate the relation of uncertainty and anticipation. Participants (N = 30) observed simulated, video-based urban traffic scenarios while skin conductance responses were recorded. They had to indicate, by pressing a button, (1) the moment they first thought another vehicle might merge into their lane (low certainty anticipation) and (2) the moment they were sure another vehicle would merge (high certainty anticipation). Situational characteristics served as anticipatory cues that helped predict the other vehicle’s action. On the one hand, in this study, target cues (which are clearly related to the target’s activity) served to indicate an imminent lane change. On the other hand, context cues represented visible precursors in the traffic environment, e.g. a traffic sign pointing to upcoming road work. In addition, causal cues were used to determine a reason for the other vehicle to change lanes (in this instance, a construction site blocking the lane). These situational characteristics, as well as the situational criticality, were manipulated to gain insights into factors influencing the process of anticipation. Results offered an effect of target cue moderated by criticality: especially in more critical situations, the anticipation rate and subjective certainty increased, and physiological activation was reduced with target cues. Overall, the anticipatory performance was found to be a predictor of subjective certainty (through its impact on skin conductance responses). The findings are discussed in the context of the methodological approach for applications in traffic.     

Improving payment of traffic fines with financial incentives: Discounts vs. penalties

The effective enforcement of traffic laws is critical for improved road safety outcomes. Decisions to follow traffic rules and pay fines are influenced by formal institutions (e.g. laws, court summons, and fines) as well as informal institutions (e.g. norms and aspects of culture). Formal and informal institutions create incentives that should be designed to steer individuals’ behaviour towards desired outcomes. Unfortunately, there is no reason to believe that the institutions to deal with traffic violations in South Africa currently create effective incentives. This paper discusses the findings of a controlled laboratory experiment, conducted with a sample of university students, that tested the efficacy of different financial incentives that may influence the payment of traffic fines. An early payment discount was compared to a late payment penalty (used in other countries, for example, some states in the USA), and to the absence of any incentives. Furthermore, we examined whether the willingness to settle fines is sensitive to the likelihood of detection by the authorities. We found that introducing financial incentives significantly increases voluntary payment of fines, irrespective of whether immediate payment is encouraged with a discount or late payment is discouraged with a surcharge. In addition, subjects are more sensitive to the likelihood of detection when financial incentives are present.     

Predictors of perceived road collision/incident risk among horse users: A survey study from Norway

Although horse users in traffic are a vulnerable road user group, traffic safety problems among them are scantly examined by previous research. The main aim of the present study was to examine the role of some demographic variables, traffic safety attitudes, and level of knowledge about rules and regulations applying to horse use in traffic for predicting perceived road collision/incident risk in a sample of horse users in Norway. An online survey was conducted to collect data from a total of 1733 horse users including horse riders and drivers of horse-drawn sulky, wagon or sled. The respondents accessed the survey via a link put to the website of the Norwegian Horse Centre, which is in contact with many different horse user environments in Norway. The majority of the respondents were female and between the ages of 18–30. A multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the predictors of the perceived collision/incident risk involving other motor vehicles. Results showed that traffic safety attitudes among horse users were the strongest predictor of the perceived collision/incident risk. In particular, horse users reported a negative attitude towards the other road users (e.g. drivers) indicating that they perceive the other road users’ actions and approaches as the biggest source of risk in road traffic. The level of knowledge about the rules and regulations applying to horse use, especially in walking and cycling lane, was relatively low among the respondents. However, knowledge about rules and regulations did not appear as a strong predictor of the perceived collision/incident risk. Results indicate the need to increase road users, especially drivers’, awareness about the problems and needs of horse users in traffic.     

A diary study of distracted driving behaviours

The introduction and uptake of technology within road vehicles has readily advanced the capabilities and the functions that the driver of a road vehicle has available to them. While this has benefited the drivers’ productivity and entertainment behind the wheel, it has also heightened the possibility for distraction. Research into driver distraction to date has identified how technologies inside the vehicle may be used ineffectively and can compromise the safety of the road transport system. Yet, the factors that drivers state impact on their decision to engage with distracting technologies are less well known. This paper presents the first diary study into driver distraction. The study asked drivers to record all technological distractions that they engaged with across a 4-week period, as well as interactions that they ignored or choose not to engage with. The diary entries include the technologies drivers interacted with and the conditions surrounding this, as well as external factors that drivers cited to influence their decision to interact. Primarily, factors relating to the task itself were found to be of most importance to the drivers’ decision to engage. Differences were also found in how drivers stated they compensated for any engagement with distracting tasks. This has important consequences for the design and integration of technological devices into the vehicle. The novel application of the method offers insights into the naturalistic conditions surrounding drivers’ involvement with distracting technologies. The method is also reviewed on its applicability to the study of driver distraction.     

The perception of bicycle crashes with and without motor vehicles: Which crash types do older and middle-aged cyclists fear most?

Several studies have focused on the perceived risk of bicycle crashes (irrespective of crash types) and concluded that cycling near high volumes of motor vehicles deters people from cycling. The perceived risk of bicycle crash types (with or without motor vehicles) has not yet been studied. Cyclists, both in countries with low and high levels of cycling participation, are substantially more likely to sustain severe injuries in single-bicycle crashes than in bicycle-motor vehicle crashes. This questionnaire study sets out to compare which bicycle crash types are perceived to cause most hospitalizations among cyclists. The study comprised cyclists over 55 years in the Netherlands, and over 40 years in the Belgian regions of Flanders (a region with high cycling participation), Brussels and Wallonia (regions with low cycling participation). The majority of cyclists (60%) perceive bicycle-motor vehicle crashes cause most hospitalizations among cyclists. This percentage is greatest in the areas of Brussels and Wallonia and lowest in the Netherlands. Cyclists who were involved in a bicycle-motor vehicle crash themselves are more likely to regard this crash type as the most common cause of hospitalizations among cyclists, while cyclists over 60 years who were involved in a crash without a motor vehicle are more likely to perceive that crash type as the most common cause. The smaller perception bias in the study areas with higher cycling participation – particularly the Netherlands and to a somewhat lesser degree Flanders – is probably due to bicycle infrastructure being more separated from high-speed motor traffic, leaving cyclists less exposed. The outcomes show that cyclists underestimate the likelihood of severe injuries due to single-bicycle crashes. New interventions should raise the awareness of the risk of single-bicycle crashes and provide solutions to avoid such crashes.     

Differences in cycling performance of Dutch and non-Dutch students in the Netherlands

Thirty-seven young adult participants completed a bicycle ride through the city of Groningen. Behaviour of Dutch and non-Dutch cyclists was compared in three conditions: on a control track (i.e. a one-way bicycle path), on a complex intersection, and on a roundabout. Basic bicycle control of the two groups did not differ, neither did reported invested mental effort. However, non-Dutch participants made more serious errors in the experiment and reported to have had more crashes previous to the experiment. It is concluded that the performance of non-Dutch cyclists who continue cycling upon arrival in a new country, does not differ on the control level, but at the higher manoeuvre level more performance errors were observed in the non-Dutch group.     

环境亮度对食品消费决策的影响：食品安全感知的中介作用

本研究考察了环境亮度对食品消费决策的影响,揭示了其发生的心理机制及边界。实验1和实验2发现环境亮度正向影响消费者支付意愿。这一效应的内在机制是因为明亮环境使消费者产生更高的食品安全感知,进而增加其对食品的支付意愿。对产品认证标签的检验进一步验证了安全感知的中介作用 (实验2)。结果表明,当食品具有认证标签时,食品安全感知无法中介环境亮度对消费者支付意愿的影响。     

人际冲突与安全工作行为：愤怒和报复动机的多重中介效应

为探讨人际冲突和安全工作行为之间的关系,以及愤怒和报复动机的多重中介作用,采用时间滞后的数据搜集方法,通过上级-下属配对的方式对229名公交司机及其主管进行调查。结果表明：人际冲突能够对安全工作行为产生显著的负向影响,人际冲突可以通过激发愤怒情绪来减少安全工作行为,也能够通过刺激报复动机对安全工作行为产生消极影响,愤怒和报复动机在人际冲突与安全工作行为之间发挥着多重中介效应。     

Still No Evidence For Temporally Extended Shock-frequency Reduction As A Reinforcer.

There is no consensus and very little overlap in the criticisms of my target article. Because the primary consequences of avoidance behavior are by definition alterations in the distribution of shocks in time, any theory about the reinforcement of such behavior necessarily must begin with that dimension. However, the safety‐signal version of two‐process theory calls on positively and negatively correlated stimuli, including the responses themselves serving as stimuli, to transmit the effects of those alterations to the relevant behavior. Meanwhile, the Herrnstein—Hineline single‐process theory hypothesizes an additional source of reinforcement: a direct effect of reduction in the density of shock over some extended period of time. I can find no data that selectively support that hypothesis.     

Choosing between predictable shock schedules: Long- versus short-duration signals

Two experiments assessed the relative aversiveness of different duration preshock signals (5 and 20 seconds) and different duration stimuli identifying shock-free periods. In the first experiment, the responding of 15 of 18 rats was maintained when it produced changes from a predictable-shock condition with a 5-second preshock signal to an identical schedule with a 20-second preshock signal; responding was not maintained when it produced the opposite changes. These results occurred with intershock intervals of both 120 seconds and 240 seconds. The second experiment assessed whether changing to the 20-second schedule was maintained by properties of the preshock signals identifying the shock periods or by properties of the stimuli identifying the shock-free periods. Four subjects were given training with the two signaled schedules in an operant chamber and then later given off-baseline preference tests in a shuttlebox. When given a choice between preshock signals, subjects chose the 5-second signals over the 20-second signals. However, when given a choice between stimuli identifying shock-free periods, subjects chose the stimulus identifying the shorter shock-free periods (i.e., the one previously correlated with the 20-second signals). These findings are discussed within the Rescorla and Wagner model of stimulus compounds and within the context of safety as a contrast phenomenon.