Relationship between career maturity and self-concepts of suburban and urban middle- and urban lower-class preadolescent black males

The relationship between career maturity and self-concepts of 252 sixth-grade black males was investigated. Student samples of suburban and urban middle- and urban lower-class were drawn from 42 different school settings located in Monroe, Erie, and Westchester Counties of New York State. The Attitude Scale of the Career Maturity Inventory and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory were used to assess the association of career maturity and self-concepts. Results indicated relatively weak-positive relationships between career maturity and self-concepts. Significant career maturity differences were found. However, self-concepts of the three groups were not statistically significantly different. Of the set of independent variables predicting and estimating variance accounted for (socioeconomic status, family intactness, place of residence, and reading), socioeconomic status was found to have the strongest predictive value on career maturity. It was suggested that researchers examine elementary school black students' career development in view of the group with whom they identify most.     

Why does memory span increase with age?

Ordered recall of auditory digits was obtained from children of 4, 7, 9, and 11 years of age. Lists had one of three types of sound pattern: melody, prosody, or monotone. For each sound pattern condition, half the lists were temporally grouped. Effects of sound pattern were minor, and not obviously age-specific. Profound effects of temporal grouping and clear-cut primacy effects appeared for all age groups and all conditions. These results render less plausible the popular hypothesis that the increase of memory span with age is due to the emergence of active strategies. It is suggested that the development of span may be due to an increase in the ease with which children can identify the individual items and encode information about their order.     

The sources of developmental differences in children's incidental processing during discrimination trials

Crane and Ross reported that second graders learned more than sixth graders about attributes made relevant after solution of a discrimination task. Here two experiments are reported that enlighten the sources of this developmental difference. Both make use of an experimental technique whereby children verbalize their hypotheses during solution of a discrimination problem. The results indicate that ten-year-olds do not learn about incidental attributes that they tested while irrelevant in the pre-solution period, but that five-year-olds and seven-year-olds do. Children of all three ages process incidental information about attributes that they did not sample pre-solution. With some qualification, the incidentally processed information is retained throughout a five-minute delay interval. The results bear on developmental trends in the distribution of attention and on theoretical accounts of incidental learning in discrimination tasks.     

Discrimination learning and stimulus generalization by impulsive and reflective children

The proposition that impulsive children inhibit expressive behavior less than reflective children was investigated by providing third grade impulsive and reflective boys with either differential or nondifferential forms or successive discrimination training prior to tests for stimulus generalization. Consistent with specific predictions derived from Spence's theory on the roles of excitation and inhibition, it was found that: (a) Reflectives acquired the discrimination more rapidly, (b) reflectives achieved a higher level of discriminative performance, (c) impulsives exhibited more variable response reates during the nonreinforced stimulus, and (d) the type of training interacted with the child's conceptual tempo to determine the elevation and shape of the post-discrimination generalization gradients. The results provide support for the construct validity of the Matching Familiar Figures Test of reflectivity-impulsivity.     

Peripheral information extraction: A developmental examination of reading processes

Three experiments examining the information extraction processes are presented. In Experiments I and II, adults and children were presented paragraphs to read and search for specified targets, respectively. Two types of typographical (spatial) manipulations were used: case of the letters within the paragraphs was as normally experienced, or in alternating upper and lower case letters. Spacing between words was either as normal, filled with a neutral symbol, or absent. The response measures were reading and search speed in words per minute. Sensitivity to case (word shape) and space (word boundary) increased as a function of experience and was different for reading compared with search. In Experiment III subjects were asked to judge whether briefly presented pairs of letters were the same or different. Retinal (spatial) location was varied from trial to trial; dependent measure was reaction time. Results showed a developmental progression in response time with complex interactions. Theoretical interpretations of these data are discussed in support of the initial stage of Hochberg's peripheral to cognitive search guidance model.     

Rehearsal capacity and dimensional independence in retardates

Retardate use of retention strategies and the independence of color and form retention were compared with predictions of the Attention-Retention theory of retardate discrimination learning. Lists of two-choice discrimination problems were increased in length from one to capacity, which was defined through criterion retention across a 20-sec interval. It was demonstrated that (a) capacity and rate of adjustment of retentional strategy were directly related to intelligence, (b) at capacity limits the retention of problems in one dimension interfered with retention in a second dimension, and (c) results consistent with a capacity allocation strategy were obtained. The results were interpreted as reflecting short-term memory capacity constraints on the use of rehearsal.     

Infants' discrimination of internal and external pattern elements

Human infants' discrimination of changes in internal and external elements of compound visual patterns was investigated in four experiments employing a familiarization-novelty paradigm in which visual reinforcing patterns were presented contingent upon rate of high-amplitude nonnutritive sucking. In Experiment 1, 4-month infants discriminated changes in the shape of internal, external and both internal and external figures. One-month infants discriminated external changes in both internal and external figures, but failed to show reliable response recovery when only internal figures were changed. Experiments 2 and 3 failed to explain the 1-month results on the basis of poor resolution of internal figures by showing comparable discrimination of small and large singly-presented figures and by failing to find improved internal discrimination with large separation between internal and external figures. In Experiment 4, 1-month infants showed response recovery to figure additions made adjacent to the initial figure, but not to internal additions. The results are interpreted in terms of attentiveness by young infants to external pattern elements and may indicate early processing of figure-ground information. The developmental differences observed suggest an increased breadth of attention to pattern elements.     

Texture gradient effectiveness in the perception of surface slant

To assess the development of monocular slant perception as well as the relative effectiveness of different sources of information, children in first, third, and fifth grades and college adults were asked to make judgments of surface slant on the basis of monocular texture gradient information. Accuracy of judgment increased with increasing age. In addition, differences in gradient effectiveness were found. Compression gradients were relatively ineffective sources of information, whereas perspective and multiple gradients resulted in greater accuracy. The results suggest limitations on the specificity of certain forms of gradients.     

Children's attention to stimulus components with variation in relative salience of components and degree of stimulus integration

A total of 400 children at ages 5, 9, and 12 years were given a component selection task with stimuli differing in color and shape. Relative salience of these two stimulus components was manipulated across subjects in two ways: the standard shapes and colors from previous studies were compared with standard shapes in fluorescent colors, and the latter materials were compared with nonsense shapes in fluorescent colors. While fluorescence of color had little effect, the replacement of standard shapes with nonsense figures caused attention to be redirected from shape to color as the primary cue for learning. This effect was more pronounced at age 9 than at age 5. Apparently there is a greater tendency for older than for younger children to withdraw attention from a normally dominant component such as shape, when it is advantageous to adopt another feature such as color as the primary functional cue. An additional variable was integration of components (color within shape vs color as background for shape). Integration produced generally greater attention to color but did not affect the general pattern of salience effects.