Cognitive abilities required in time judgment depending on the temporal tasks used: A comparison of children and adults

The aim of this study was to examine age-related differences in time judgments during childhood as a function of the temporal task used. Children aged 5 and 8 years, as well as adults, were submitted to 3 temporal tasks (bisection, generalization and reproduction) with short (0.4/0.8?s) and long durations (8/16?s). Furthermore, their cognitive capacities in terms of working memory, attentional control, and processing speed were assessed by a wide battery of neuropsychological tests. The results showed that the age-related differences in time judgment were greater in the reproduction task than in the temporal discrimination tasks. This task was indeed more demanding in terms of working memory and information processing speed. In addition, the bisection task appeared to be easier for children than the generalization task, whereas these 2 tasks were similar for the adults, although the generalization task required more attention to be paid to the processing of durations. Our study thus demonstrates that it is important to understand the different cognitive processes involved in time judgment as a function of the temporal tasks used before venturing to draw conclusions about the development of time perception capabilities.     

Book review

Wheeldon, L. (Ed.). (2000). Aspects of language production. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Pp.419. ISBN 0-86377-882-8. Price £3995 (Hbk). ISBN 0-86377-883-6. Price £1995 (Pbk, published 2002).     

The impact of object working memory on timing

Nontemporal information processing involving short-term memory requirements disturbs time estimation. Previous studies mostly used letters or digits, which are maintained in working memory by phonological loops. Since verbal and nonverbal information are processed by separate working-memory subsystems, how do nonverbal, object-based memory tasks affect time estimation? We manipulated visual object memory load using the magic cube materials. Participants were divided into three groups, who completed a reaction-time task (control task), a memory-recognition task interposed by an attempt to produce a 2500-ms time interval (active processing), and a memory-recognition task following time interval production (passive retention). The produced time increased with increasing memory-object size under both the active processing and passive retention conditions; mean produced time interval did not significantly differ between the two experimental conditions. By comparing the reaction times and error rates of a relevant task, we excluded any speed–accuracy tradeoff during timing. This result suggests that when the working-memory information to be processed includes objects requiring attention for retention, the production of time intervals is also affected by memory item maintenance.     

An introduction to Bayesian model selection for evaluating informative hypotheses

Most researchers have specific expectations concerning their research questions. These may be derived from theory, empirical evidence, or both. Yet despite these expectations, most investigators still use null hypothesis testing to evaluate their data, that is, when analysing their data they ignore the expectations they have. In the present article, Bayesian model selection is presented as a means to evaluate the expectations researchers have, that is, to evaluate so called informative hypotheses. Although the methodology to do this has been described in previous articles, these are rather technical and havemainly been published in statistical journals. The main objective of thepresent article is to provide a basic introduction to the evaluation of informative hypotheses using Bayesian model selection. Moreover, what is new in comparison to previous publications on this topic is that we provide guidelines on how to interpret the results. Bayesian evaluation of informative hypotheses is illustrated using an example concerning psychosocial functioning and the interplay between personality and support from family.     

An Examination of Rapid Positioning Movements with Spatiotemporal Constraints

Unidirectional positioning movements with spatiotemporal-constraints were examined as a test of impulse-timing theory (Schmidt, 1976; 1980; Wallace, 1981). Movements were examined at the kinematic, kinetic, and neuromuscular levels in three experiments. In the first experiment, displacement was held constant while five different movement times were examined. Both amplitudes and durations of the EMG and the kinetic variables were related to movement time. The results generally support the impulse-timing model. In the second experiment, movements were performed to a target at each of four distances in a constant movement time. EMG and force amplitudes and, unexpectedly, accelerative-force duration were modulated to achieve changes in displacement when movement time was constant. In the third experiment, movement time and displacement were simultaneously varied resulting in four conditions with equal average velocities. The results of this experiment were not as clear and exhibited individual differences. EMG duration did not always vary with changes in movement time. The results of all three experiments could not be adequately accounted for by the impulse-timing model.     

The dark and the bright sides of proactive work behaviour and situational constraints: Longitudinal relationships with task conflicts

We investigated relationships of a job stressor (situational constraints) and specific proactive behaviours with change in task conflicts over time. We introduced two distinct types of proactive work behaviour (promotion-oriented initiative and prevention-oriented initiative) and examined their positive but also negative relationships with change in task conflicts. Study 1 supported the construct validity of promotion-oriented initiative and prevention-oriented initiative for 363 student assistants: Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that both types of proactive behaviour were distinct constructs and also distinct from active coping; patterns of correlations were similar to those of a prior concept of proactive behaviour. Study 2 was a longitudinal online survey with 197 employees over 3 weeks. Consistent with our hypotheses, situational constraints and promotion-oriented initiative predicted an increase in task conflicts, whereas prevention-oriented initiative predicted a decrease in task conflicts.     

Differential effects of task-specific practice on performance in a simulated penalty kick under high-pressure

ObjectivesThe current study investigated to what extent task-specific practice can help reduce the adverse effects of high-pressure on performance in a simulated penalty kick task. Based on the assumption that practice attenuates the required attentional resources, it was hypothesized that task-specific practice would enhance resilience against high-pressure.MethodParticipants practiced a simulated penalty kick in which they had to move a lever to the side opposite to the goalkeeper's dive. The goalkeeper moved at different times before ball-contact.DesignBefore and after task-specific practice, participants were tested on the same task both under low- and high-pressure conditions.ResultsBefore practice, performance of all participants worsened under high-pressure; however, whereas one group of participants merely required more time to correctly respond to the goalkeeper movement and showed a typical logistic relation between the percentage of correct responses and the time available to respond, a second group of participants showed a linear relationship between the percentage of correct responses and the time available to respond. This implies that they tended to make systematic errors for the shortest times available. Practice eliminated the debilitating effects of high-pressure in the former group, whereas in the latter group high-pressure continued to negatively affect performance.ConclusionsTask-specific practice increased resilience to high-pressure. However, the effect was a function of how participants responded initially to high-pressure, that is, prior to practice. The results are discussed within the framework of attentional control theory (ACT).     

Syntactical Constraints on Definitions

This essay considers arguments for and against syntactical constraints on the proper formalization of definitions, originally owing to Alfred Tarski. It discusses and refutes an application of the constraints generalized to include a prohibition against not only object‐place but also predicate‐place variables in higher‐order logic in a criticism of a recent effort to define the concept of heterologicality in a strengthened derivation of Grelling's paradox within type theory requirements. If the objections were correct, they would offer a more general moral for the proper formal definition of terms in philosophical logic. The criticism nevertheless seems mistaken both in the substance and specific application with respect to legitimate synctactical constraints on definitions of key concepts in the case of Grelling's paradox. As such, the critique provides no justification for overturning previous conclusions concerning the possibility of resurrecting a type‐observant version of Grelling's heterologicality paradox.     

Motor Programming as a Function of Constraints on Movement Initiation

Three experiments are reported that test the hypothesis that under certain conditions programming time is a function of the directional accuracy demand of a response, directional accuracy being quantified by the minimal angle subtended at the point of movement initiation by the circular targets within the response. Subjects in three simple reaction time experiments were required to tap a single target or a series of circular targets as rapidly as possible with a hand-held stylus. Experiments 1 and 3 showed that the subtended angle (SA) of a response can have a more powerful effect on programming time, as indexed by reaction time and premotor time, than the number of movement parts in the response. The results of Experiment 2 revealed that the locus of the directional accuracy effect was SA and not target size or movement distance. In all three experiments, response SA was a better predictor of programming time than was number of movement parts, target size, movement distance, movement time, and average movement velocity. The findings support the notion that constraints placed upon movement initiation by the directional accuracy demand of the task can play an important role in determining the length of the programming process.     

Reasonable Impartiality and Priority for Compatriots. A Criticism of Liberal Nationalism’s Main flaws

Distinguishing between reasonable partiality and reasonable impartiality makes a difference in resolving the serious clashes between priority for compatriots versus cosmopolitan global duties. Defenders of a priority for compatriots have to acknowledge two strong moral constraints: states have to fulfil all their special, domestic and trans-domestic duties, and associative duties are limited by distributive constraints resulting from the moral duty to fight poverty and gross global inequalities. In the recent global context, I see four main problems for liberal-nationalist defenders of priority for compatriots: (i) Reasonable particularists often forget that associative duties for compatriots compete with many sub-national and trans-domestic associative duties. (ii) They tend to forget that associative national duties compete with other, strong special (contractual, reparative) obligations regarding not only citizens and residents inside nation-states but also trans-domestic obligations across state borders. (iii) They do not properly discuss the problem of unallocated duties in addressing global poverty and insecurity. (iv) The design of supra-national and global mediating institutions, and the crafting of policies to remedy the misallocation of duties and to coordinate the required state activities is an urgent task neglected by liberal nationalists. In the recent context, reasonable partialitys bias towards partiality is most unwelcome and morally dubious. Reasonable impartialitys bias towards cosmopolitanism helps to stimulate a drastic shift in obligations and stimulates productive trans-national institutional design.