Public transportation training: in vivo versus classroom instruction

This study evaluated a classroom program to teach public transportation usage (bus-riding skills) to retarded persons. Based on a task analysis of specific skills, five retarded male students were taught each of the components of locating, signalling, boarding and riding, and exiting a bus. These skills were taught sequentially, using training procedures consisting of role playing, manipulating the actions of a doll on a simulated model, and responding to questions about slide sequences. Before, during, and after training, subjects were tested on generalization probes in the classroom and in the natural environment. Results of a multiple-baseline design across subjects indicated that up to 12 months after termination of training, each subject exhibited appropriate bus-riding skills on actual city buses. Two other subjects were trained on each skill component in vivo, on city buses, in order to compare the relative effectiveness and efficiency of classroom versus in vivo training. Both of these subjects acquired appropriate bus-riding skills; however, the in vivo training procedure was both more time consuming and expensive than classroom training. These findings further demonstrate the effectiveness and practicality of properly designed classroom training procedures for teaching community survival skills to retarded persons.     

Group cycling safety behaviours: A systematic review

BackgroundThe popularity of cycling in a group is longstanding and increasing. Compared to riding as an individual, many cyclists feel safer when riding in a group as they have better personal security, potential support in case of mishaps, safer wayfinding and are more visible to other road users. However, further to the safety challenges shared with individual cyclists, group cyclist safety is impacted by rider proximity, the larger space taken up on roadways, potentially higher speeds, and social norms that could increase risky behaviours. Despite these unique safety considerations, the practice of cycling in groups has received little academic attention and group cyclist safety behaviours have not been analysed by road safety researchers.ObjectiveTo identify, describe, categorise and conceptualise within a teamwork framework, safety related behaviours of groups of cyclists as mentioned in academic literature.MethodsThree academic databases (Google Scholar, Proquest, and Scopus) were searched for peer reviewed literature that mentioned safe or risky behaviours of groups of cyclists. A total of 32 papers met the inclusion criteria. Relevant group cyclist behaviours were described and categorised using a conceptual teamwork framework.ResultsGroup cyclists’ safety behaviours are governed by a comprehensive but informal and adaptable set of rules. These rules are safety critical and are often strictly controlled within groups. Many groups of cyclists may ride in a safer manner than individual cyclists due to teamwork factors, particularly shared mental models, team orientation, and adaptability.ConclusionGroup cyclists take safety seriously. Teamwork factors may make behavioural interventions to decrease risky behaviours easier to implement with group cyclists compared to individual cyclists. Investigation of group cycling safety behaviours may inform safe system interventions to increase road safety.     

The factors underlying the decision to text while driving

Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), this study looked at the motivations and reasons behind the behaviour of texting while driving. Following an elicitation study, 150 participants completed a questionnaire measuring self-efficacy and moral norms in addition to traditional TPB variables. Texting while driving was found to be a common behaviour although prevalence varied between age groups. While the youngest age group were more likely to have ever sent a text message while driving, those aged 35–44 years old were most likely to have read a message while driving and to intend to text while driving in the future. Moral norms had the strongest significant correlation with intentions to text while driving. Similar to past research the traditional TPB variables explained significant variance in intentions to perform the behaviour. To be fully effective, future campaigns and interventions to reduce the behaviour are advised to focus on the moral aspect of the behaviour and the beliefs that it saves time and prevents boredom. The setting of campaigns or interventions and the mode of delivery should also be considered. Efforts to deter the behaviour should be aimed at those of all ages and not just younger drivers.     

Anger,aggression, risky behavior,and crash-related outcomes in three groups of drivers

High anger drivers who acknowledged problems with driving anger and were interested in treatment were compared to high and low anger drivers who did not acknowledge problems with driving anger or want treatment. Although high anger drivers who acknowledged problems reported greater anger on two measures than high anger drivers who did not acknowledge problems, both high anger groups tended not to differ from one another and were more frequently and intensely angered when driving, reported more aggressive and less adaptive/constructive forms of expressing anger while driving, engaged in more aggressive and risky behavior on the road, and experienced more of some accident-related outcomes than low anger drivers. High anger groups did not differ from each other, but reported more trait anxiety and anger and more outward negative and less controlled general anger expression than the low anger group. The two groups of high anger drivers, however, require different types of interventions given their state of readiness for driving anger reduction. Results were also interpreted as supportive of the state-trait model of anger and construct validity of the Driving Anger Scale.     

Slow down! Get off that phone! The impact of a high school road safety education program in influencing whether a young person speaks up to a risky driver

Risky driving behaviours such as mobile phone use and speeding remain common among young people, thereby contributing to their over-representation in road crashes. There is much evidence that similar-aged peer passengers can have a negative impact on a young driver’s behaviour; however, there is also research that supports the positive influence that peer passengers can have when they speak up about risky behaviours. Road safety education programs, such as the Royal Automobile Club of Queensland’s (RACQ) Docudrama program, aim to help young people understand the important role they play as peer passengers and, thus, the importance of being willing to speak up to a driver who may be engaging in risky behaviours. Extending on a previous evaluation of the RACQ Docudrama program, the current study uses an Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour framework to evaluate the program’s effectiveness in influencing peer passengers’ intentions and self-reported behaviour in speaking up against risky driving behaviours, including mobile phone use and speeding. A repeated-measures design compared participants’ responses over 3 time-points: Time 1 (one month before participating in the program), Time 2 (immediately after having participated in the program), and Time 3 (three months after program participation). The results indicate that levels of anticipated regret for having not spoken up were higher following participation in the program suggesting that it encouraged young people to consider how they would feel if something was to happen and they, as passengers, had not tried to prevent it by speaking up. Three months after participating in the program, the majority of participants reported that they were positively influenced by the program in terms of engaging in safer behaviours as passengers; although the significant effects regarding improvements were observed only immediately after participating in the program. The implications of such findings are discussed in terms of the need for some type of ‘booster’ post-program participation to capitalise on the positive immediate effects that the program evokes.     

Driving anger in Germany: Validation of the driving anger scale for German drivers

In 1994, Deffenbacher et al. published the Driving Anger Scale (DAS), a tool for assessing a driver’s propensity to experience anger in road traffic. Since then, much research has used this scale to measure the driving anger experienced in various countries around the world. This study examines the scale’s validity for German drivers. It also relates their experiences of anger while driving to their experiences and expressions of anger in general, as well as to certain demographic variables. In addition, it compares German drivers’ experiences of driving anger to those reported by drivers from other countries. We distributed a German version of the DAS and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) to a sample of 1136 German drivers. Results showed that a 22-items version of the DAS with six factors produced good fit indices for German drivers. Furthermore, data analysis revealed small to moderate significant relationships between German drivers’ driving anger experiences and their experiences and expressions of anger in general, underlining the idea that driving anger is a personality characteristic that is related to one's general experience and expression of anger. Finally, German drivers' driving anger experiences differed from those of drivers from other countries in that German drivers reported less driving anger than drivers from Spain and New Zealand, comparable levels to those from Turkey, Malaysia, and the United States, and more driving anger than drivers from France, Australia, China, and the United Kingdom. In addition, discourteous driver actions and hostile gestures consistently triggered highest driving anger ratings whereas police presence was rated lowest. Given these results, we conclude that the DAS can be applied to German drivers in its modified version.     

The role of legal and moral norms to regulate the behavior of texting while driving

Despite a nationwide lawful effort to regulate texting-while-driving behavior, little change has been reported. This study assessed the effect of current legal enforcement on attitudinal and behavioral responses toward texting while driving in conjunction with potential influences of two types of perceived norms—legal and moral. An online survey was conducted with 313 college students recruited from three states where the history of a banning law of texting while driving varied (more than 3 years, less than 1 year, and none). The students self-reported perceived legal norm, perceived moral norm, perceived risk of texting while driving, frequency of texting while driving, attitude toward texting while driving, and intention of texting while driving. General linear model analyses revealed that the mere presence of legal enforcement showed a negative relationship with frequency of behavior only for the state with the banning law in effect more than 3 years. While the perceived legal norm showed inconsistent relationships with outcome variables, the perceived moral norm appeared most promising to discourage texting while driving among young drivers. A banning law for texting-while-driving behavior not only backfired on the actual behavior in a short-term effect, but also required a long-term exposure of the law to change the actual behavior among college students. On the other hand, cultivation of a moral norm to regulate the behavior of texting while driving is particularly encouraged in that the stable nature of this psychological variable can play a role to suppress possible reactance evoked by an external force. Policy makers are encouraged to harness their approach to regulate young drivers’ texting while driving with the strategy that appeals to the drivers’ moral beliefs rather than simply forcing them to comply with the law.     

Nomophobia and self-reported smartphone use while driving: An investigation into whether nomophobia can increase the likelihood of illegal smartphone use while driving

In Australia, illegal smartphone use while driving is on the rise, increasing the likelihood drivers could be distracted and crash. Smartphones avail users a sense of belonging, connectedness, and access to information. As such, the sensation of being without one’s smartphone has developed into the prevalence of nomophobia, defined as the fear and anxiety associated with being without smartphone. The aim of the current study was to specifically examine the relationship between smartphone use while driving and nomophobia by 1) determining the types and frequency of illegal phone use while driving and, 2) exploring the relationship between nomophobia and illegal phone use while driving. The sample consisted of 2,774 Victorian smartphone users (47.0% male) with a valid driver’s licence. Driver’s nomophobia levels were measured using the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q), while driver’s smartphone use was measured using an original scale developed by the authors. A binary logistic regression was conducted which showed that the longer average time spent per day on a smartphone and a lack of knowledge of the mobile phone road law were the strongest positive predictors of illegal use (OR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.09–1.60; OR = 1.84, 95% CI = 1.48–2.28, respectively). However, only one nomophobia factor (i.e., access to information) significantly predicted illegal smartphone use (OR = 1.06, 95% CI = 1.04–1.09). Smartphone use is a complex and contextual behaviour, therefore, focusing on the fear of being without in dependency overlooks the nuances of the need to be with. This study offered several practical interventions that may mitigate illegal smartphone use and reduce the likelihood of crashes among Victorian road users.     

Characteristics of unsafe events involving a motor vehicle for group riders in Western Australia: A naturalistic study

Little is known about the safety issues affecting non-professional group riders. This study aimed to identify the most common unsafe events involving a motor vehicle that occurred while group riding, describe their characteristics and suggest potential preventative measures. A naturalistic study collected video footage from cameras attached to the bicycles of group riders who rode on-road for training, fitness or recreation in Perth, Western Australia. Fifty-two riders from 40 different riding groups, recorded footage of 126 group riding trips, resulting in 135 h of video. A total of 108 unsafe events (‘near-crashes/ crash relevant events’ and ‘close passing only events’) involving the group riders and a motor vehicle were observed. The most common type of unsafe event involved a motor vehicle attempting to pass/ overtake the group (65.7%). For 39.4% of the passing events, the presence of road infrastructure ahead (e.g. roundabout, traffic island) prevented safe passing and led to an unsafe event. Motorists were at fault for 83.3% of all unsafe events and reckless behaviour by the motorist was observed for 13.3% of these at-fault events. Aggressive communication on the part of the motorist or rider/s was observed for 15% of all unsafe events. This study highlighted that motorists were at fault for the majority of unsafe events involving group riders but only a small proportion involved reckless behaviour. Further research should examine the effectiveness of motorist education as well as infrastructure modifications on popular group riding routes, for reducing unsafe events involving group riders.     

The effectiveness of “Soft-blocking” for reducing clicking on-screen while driving

Smartphone usage while driving is recognized as a compromise on road safety. We investigated if silencing and hiding of notifications from drivers (soft blocking) can reduce clicks on the screen while driving and if the effect of the soft blocking would be different for different speed thresholds (STs) (i.e., at driving speed greater than 0 km/h, greater than 1 km/h….and greater than 90 km/h). Drivers installed a smartphone application, which continuously monitored their phones. In the intervention group (N = 22), the application switched to the soft blocking mode during the study's intervention period, while in the control group (N = 29) it remained in a recording-only mode. We ran a Poisson regression model on the click events frequency (CEF) to estimate the soft blocking effect for each of the STs between 0 and 90 km/h. Our analyses indicated that the soft blocking effectiveness was indeed speed-dependent and pointed to a decline in CEF from ST > 55 km/h and to mixed results if ST < 55 km/h. We identify a potential of soft blocking to reduce phone usage while driving and recommend ST-dependent soft blocking. We also recommend using different STs in future investigations on the effectiveness of soft blocking.