Reflexivity in Teams: A Review and New Perspectives

Team reflexivity posits that the extent to which teams reflect upon and adapt their functioning is positively related to team performance. While remarkable progress has been made to provide evidence of this relationship, the underlying framework is missing elements of current theoretical streams for analyzing and describing teamwork, leaving the diversity of effects of team reflexivity often untouched. In this article, we present an update for this framework, by reviewing previous research on reflexivity, addressing gaps in the literature, and revising the original model by integrating feedback and dynamic team effectiveness frameworks for describing temporal developments of reflexivity. We furthermore propose a new dimensional structure for reflexivity, relying on prior work conceptualizing teams as information-processing systems that learn and advance through social-cognitive elements. Our model is therefore not only suitable for explaining the diverse set of relationships between team reflexivity on outcomes, but also provides valuable directions for viewing reflexivity as process that takes place during both transition and action phases of teamwork. We conclude with implications for managers, identify limitations, and propose an agenda for further research into this area. This article contributes an extended perspective relevant for further theory development and for effectively managing reflexivity in teams.     

Decreasing bouts of prolonged sitting among office workers

Many workers in industrialized nations spend their day seated at a desk. Research suggests that accumulated sitting time increases risk for certain diseases (van der Ploeg, Chey, Korda, Banks, & Bauman, 2012). To reduce risk, health researchers recommend frequent standing or walking breaks during the workday. In the current study, we evaluated 3 behavioral interventions to decrease bouts of prolonged sitting among office workers. Information alone was not as effective as a treatment package that consisted of a tactile prompt, feedback, and goal setting.     

Practice effects on intra-team synergies in football teams

Developing synchronised player movements for fluent competitive match play is a common goal for coaches of team games. An ecological dynamics approach advocates that intra-team synchronization is governed by locally created information, which specifies shared affordances responsible for synergy formation. To verify this claim we evaluated coordination tendencies in two newly-formed teams of recreational players during association football practice games, weekly, for fifteen weeks (thirteen matches). We investigated practice effects on two central features of synergies in sports teams – dimensional compression and reciprocal compensation here captured through near in-phase modes of coordination and time delays between coupled players during forward and backwards movements on field while attacking and defending. Results verified that synergies were formed and dissolved rapidly as a result of the dynamic creation of informational properties, perceived as shared affordances among performers. Practising once a week led to small improvements in the readjustment delays between co-positioning team members, enabling faster regulation of coordinated team actions. Mean values of the number of player and team synergies displayed only limited improvements, possibly due to the timescales of practice. No relationship between improvements in dimensional compression and reciprocal compensation were found for number of shots, amount of ball possession and number of ball recoveries made. Findings open up new perspectives for monitoring team coordination processes in sport.     

Team coaching: One more clue for fostering team effectiveness

Introduction and objectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine the effects of team coaching (provided by the leader and by peers) on team performance and on the members’ satisfaction with the team. The mediated role of peer coaching in the relationship between leader coaching and individual and team results was also analyzed.MethodAdopting a multilevel approach and a cross-sectional design, 506 employees from 75 teams were surveyed. In the test of the hypotheses, multiple regression and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) were computed.ResultsThe results showed a direct positive effect of peer coaching on individual and team outcomes, and also a mediated effect of peer coaching in the relationship between leader coaching and both outcomes measured.ConclusionsOur findings put forward the importance of coaching in the achievement of team goals.     

Impacts of delayed feedback on eco-driving behavior and resulting environmental performance changes

Several ways have been developed and applied to improve the environmental footprint of road transportation while contributing to a better road efficiency and safety. However, independently of these measures, the individual’s behavior as a commuter and/or as a driver is also a major issue that cannot be ignored. As a result, the aim of this paper was to assess the impacts of delayed feedback on driving performance considering indicators such as average speed, excess speeding, extreme braking and acceleration; fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions, among others. Data on driving behavior was collected over a period of 6 months through the use of an on-board device installed in 40 light-duty vehicles in the region of Lisbon, Portugal. Two driving monitoring periods of 3 months each were considered: without feedback (Phase 1) and with feedback (Phase 2). Additionally, the short-term (weekly and bi-weekly) impact of feedback on performance was also assessed.The major findings indicate that both experimental and control groups increased fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions over 5%. Both male and female drivers presented increases in these indicators with female drivers presenting higher values (up to 8%, as opposed to the 4% presented by male drivers). These results are related with increases in the number of accelerations, idling and number of small trips (below 2 km) between monitoring periods. Regarding the immediate impact of feedback on driving behavior, results indicate that when receiving negative feedback (revealing a performance decline), behavior would improve the following week. The opposite was found for positive feedback, with drivers worsening performance after being informed they had improved the previous week. Such findings might give an indication that people react differently to the feedback provided, and might depreciate the information provided when negative results are reached.     

Why doesn’t feedback correct Vierordt’s law?

Vierordt [(1868). Der zeitsinn nach versuchen. Tübingen: Laupp] observed that participants over-reproduce short durations and under-reproduce long durations within a test range of sample durations (Vierordt’s law). Similar phenomena have been reported for sensory and other processing (e.g. [Helson (1964 Helson, H. (1964). Adaptation-level theory. New York, NY: Harper &; Row. [Google Scholar]). Adaptation-level theory. New York: Harper &; Row; Stevens, and Greenbaum (1966). Regression effect in psychophysical judgment. Perception &; Psychophysics, 1, 439–446]. Performance feedback (knowledge of results) does not correct this performance distortion although it does correct other errors. In Experiment 1, I tested the hypothesis that a random presentation order of the standard durations makes feedback on one trial inappropriate for the next trial preventing correction of the Vierordt effect. In Experiment 2, participants performed two consecutive reproductions after each standard duration. Having the opportunity to immediately utilize the feedback from the first reproduction did not eliminate the Vierordt effect, although participants did attempt to correct the error on the first reproduction. In Experiment 3, the Vierordt effect was reduced in a blocked presentation design. Feedback produced more veridical performance. I conclude that the resistance of the Vierordt effect to correction by feedback may result, in part, from feedback on a given trial being misapplied to correcting performance on the next trial. Ironically, the Vierordt effect, which produced the differing directions and magnitudes of performance errors reported by the feedback, may be what prevents feedback from correcting for the Vierordt effect.     

Feedback on health status and peer popularity influences social risk decision-making processes in adolescents and young adults

Cognitive and dual-processes models, involving cognitive and socio-emotional components, for adolescents’ risky behaviour have been proposed. This study tested their predictions by manipulating the presence or absence of feedback about gains and losses in health and peer popularity in a decision-making task with peers. Risky (e.g., taking or refusing a drug) and ambiguous decisions (e.g., eating hamburger or hotdog) were examined in 256 adolescents (aged 13–14; 15–16; 17–18) and young adults (aged 19–20). Participants made more risky choices and required less decision time when receiving feedback about the negative consequences on health and positive consequences on peer popularity. Decision times were comparatively larger for risky than for safe options in late adolescence and young adulthood. Results supported the dual-processes model showing that, though late cognitive changes were observed that could eventually lead to the selection of safe options, feedback gains in peer popularity outweighed unhealthy consequences leading to risky decisions.     

Evaluating the impact of real-time coaching programs on drivers overtaking cyclists

Innovative motor insurance schemes involve the use of on-board devices to collect kinematic driving data as part of the so-called ‘Pay-How-You-Drive’ schemes, which charge premiums based on drivers’ behavior. Some of these schemes also involve on-board coaching programs, which give real-time feedback to users.Here, we aimed to investigate the influence of motor insurance on-board real-time coaching programs on drivers’ behavior while overtaking cyclists, as motor vehicle/bicycle interactions are a relevant issue in road safety. The tested programs give real-time feedback to users on their acceleration, promoting smoother and safer driving styles.Data were collected with a driving simulator experiment involving 67 young drivers. The experiment was divided into two trials: in the first, participants drove as normally as possible without receiving any type of feedback; in the second, which took place one month later, they received feedback based on their driving behavior. Using data from the first trial, participants were clustered (k-mean approximation) into two groups, according to their driving style (aggressive vs. defensive). For each group, half of the drivers received contingent positive feedback (when a smooth driving event occurred) and the other half received contingent negative feedback (when a harsh driving event occurred). Feedback was presented in the form of auditory cues (for half of one group) or as visual cues (for the others). Thus, there were eight groups based on driving style, feedback type, and feedback modality.Multiple kinematic variables were studied with mixed ANOVA, and included not only clearance distances, speeds, and acceleration, but also the chosen overtaking strategy (accelerative vs. flying). Driving style, gender, car usage, feedback type and modality were considered as factors in the analysis.Results showed that the coaching programs had a significant positive effect, in terms of safety, reducing acceleration and speeds during the overtaking and inducing drivers to adopt the safer accelerative strategy. It was also particularly effective in improving the performance of aggressive drivers. These results are of high interest for real-world applications because they were obtained with a general-purpose coaching program; conversely, it might be impractical to develop dedicate programs for specific situations such as drivers overtaking cyclists.     

The influence of social networks within sports teams on athletes’ eating and exercise psychopathology: A longitudinal study

Teammates have been found to have an impact on athletes’ eating and exercise psychopathology via multiple influence mechanisms (e.g., modelling, making critical comments). However, far less is known about the role of the team social network (i.e. the pattern and strength of relationships between teammates). This novel longitudinal study aimed to explore how athletes’ eating and exercise psychopathology becomes more (convergence) or less (divergence) similar to their teammates’ over time and to explore how this varies for male and female athletes. A second aim was to identify the role of team social network variables (e.g., popularity) in determining individuals’ levels of eating and exercise psychopathology. Athletes (N = 199, mean age 18 years, n = 123 female) from 20 teams/training groups completed a survey regarding their teammate relationships and eating/exercise psychopathology (Eating Disorder Inventory-2; Athlete Compulsive Exercise Test) at three time points over a 7-month period. Significant interaction effects between time and gender were noted for athlete team variability in eating and exercise psychopathology, where both convergence and divergence of eating and exercise psychopathology was evident. In addition, being well connected to teammates, acting as the bridge between groups of teammates or being part of a cohesive team were longitudinally associated with reduced exercise psychopathology. Disordered eating and exercise prevention strategies should look to harness the behavioural convergence effect demonstrated here, by encouraging healthy eating/exercise practices among teammates. Furthermore, coaches should foster cohesive teammate relationships and be aware of how an athlete’s social positioning within their team may affect their susceptibility to exercise psychopathology.