The effect of performance setting and individual differences on the anxiety-performance relationship for elite cyclists

Fifty-three national level cyclists completed competitive rides under both laboratory and field conditions to investigate the relationship between pre-competition anxiety and performance. A total of 39 males and 14 females participated in the study, ranging in age from 19 to 26. The objectives of the study were to, (a) measure the relationship between state anxiety and performance, (b) investigate differences in the anxiety-performance relationship under laboratory versus field conditions, and (c) examine the effect of trait anxiety on the state anxiety-performance relationship. State anxiety was measured using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2; Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990), and trait anxiety with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970). Results indicated that anxiety was strongly correlated with performance on the field test, but that the anxiety-performance relationship was weaker under laboratory conditions. Results also showed that trait anxiety interacted with the relationship, as low and high trait-anxious subjects had differential response patterns to pre-competition anxiety. The findings are discussed in terms of their relevance for both practitioners and researchers.     

Development and validation of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire for Children (MIQ-C)

The ability to perform movement imagery has been shown to influence motor performance and learning in sports and rehabilitation. Self-report questionnaires have been developed to assess movement imagery ability in adults, such as the Movement Imagery Questionnaire 3 (MIQ-3); however, there is a dearth of developmentally appropriate measures for use with children. To address this gap, the focus of this research was to develop an imagery ability questionnaire for children. This process involved adaptation of the MIQ-3 via: i) cognitive interviewing with twenty children, ii) validation with 206 children by examining its factor structure via multitrait-multi method confirmatory factor analysis, and iii) examination of test-retest reliability with 23 children. The findings of Study 1 led to changes to the wording of the questionnaire and modifications of the instructions to successfully adapt the MIQ-3 for children aged 7–12 years. The validation undertaken in Study 2 found that a correlated-traits correlated-uniqueness model provided the best fit to the data. Finally, test-retest reliabilities varied from fair (for external visual imagery) to substantial (for kinesthetic imagery). With respect to ease of imaging, no significant gender or age-group differences were noted. However, significant difference were found among the three imagery modalities (p < .001), with external visual imagery rated as easiest to image and kinesthetic imagery rated as the most difficult. Taken together, findings support the use of the MIQ-C for examining movement imagery ability with children.     

The impact of uniform color on judging tackles in association football

ObjectivesThe aim of the study was to question whether uniform color had any impact on judging tackles in football.DesignFifty-two videos showing the tackles of an achromatic and a chromatic team were individually presented in random order. The chromatic team's uniform color was changed to blue, green, red and yellow.MethodsFootball referees and participants with a high and minor level of understanding of the rules of football judged the roughness of each tackle.ResultsBy analyzing all four colors, results did not reveal any impact of uniform color. Restricting analysis to blue and red showed that referees and participants with a high level of understanding of the rules judged tackles from behind more harshly for players wearing red.ConclusionsThe study found some empirical support for associating red with aggression and emphasized a differential impact of blue versus red uniforms for tackles committed from behind.     

Relationships between perfectionistic strivings,perfectionistic concerns,and competitive sport level

ObjectiveTo determine if the level of competitive sport in which people participate is related to levels of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns in sport.DesignA cross-sectional correlational design was employed.MethodA total of 383 (245 female, 138 male) undergraduate students (M age = 20.99 years, SD = 3.40) identified the level of competitive sport in which they were currently involved (i.e., no sport, recreational sport, moderately competitive sport, and highly competitive sport). Participants also completed a domain-specific measure of perfectionism that assessed perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns in sport.ResultsResults from sequential regression analyses indicated that competitive sport level explained a significant amount of variance in perfectionistic strivings (p < .001) when the overlap between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns was controlled. Competitive sport level did not explain a significant amount of variance in perfectionistic concerns when the overlap between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns was controlled.ConclusionsFindings indicate that higher (more competitive/serious) levels of competitive sport are associated with higher perfectionistic strivings in sport. Discussion focusses on the potential roles that (a) the competitive sport environment may have upon the development of perfectionistic strivings in sport, and (b) perfectionistic strivings may play in enabling athletes to compete at higher levels of competitive sport.     

元认知训练对不同认知方式小学生应用题解题能力的影响

本研究以小学五年级292名学生为对象,考察了三种思维训练方式(元认知内隐训练、元认知外显训练和一般思维策略训练)对三种不同认知方式学生(场独立型、场依存型和中间型)数学应用题解题能力的影响。结果发现：(1)思维策略的元认知外显训练和元认知内隐训练比一般思维策略训练能蜓有效地提高场依存型、中间型和场独立型三类学生的应用题解题能力：(2)元认知外显训练和内隐训练对于场独立型和中间型学生同等重要。但元认知外显训练更有助于场依存型学生应用题解题能力的提高。成为该类学生的优势圳练方式;(3)在小学五年级．场独立型学生的应用题解题能力明显优于场依存型学生的应用题解题能力。     

Examining the interactive effects of coach-created empowering and disempowering climate dimensions on athletes’ health and functioning

Based in Duda’s (2013) hierarchical and multidimensional conceptualisation of the motivational climate, the purpose of this study was to examine whether a coach-created empowering motivational climate moderated the debilitating effects of a disempowering motivational climate on athletes’ health and optimal functioning. Athletes (N = 406, M age = 23.1 years; 67% male) completed questionnaires assessing their perceptions of coach-created empowering and disempowering climates created in training and competition, enjoyment in sport, burnout symptoms, global self-worth, and symptoms of physical ill-health. Following the recommendations of Hayes (2013) and Dawson (2014), and using PROCESS (Hayes), moderated regression analyses showed that the interaction between disempowering and empowering climate dimensions was significant and predicted 1% unique variance in 3 outcome variables (i.e., enjoyment, reduced accomplishment, and physical symptoms). The Johnson-Neyman technique was employed to plot and probe the significant interactions, which revealed moderately strong to strong values of an empowering climate tempered the significant relationship between a disempowering climate and the three outcome variables. The findings from this study have implications for coach education and suggest programmes that train coaches to understand how to create empowering climates and avoid (or dramatically reduce) disempowering climates are warranted.     

Dispositional mindfulness attenuates the emotional attentional blink

Emotional stimuli have been shown to automatically hijack attention, hindering the detection of forthcoming targets. Mindfulness is defined as a present moment non-judgemental attentional stance that can be cultivated by meditation practices, but that may present interindividual variability in the general population. The mechanisms underlying modification in emotional reactivity linked to mindfulness are still a matter of debate. In particular, it is not clear whether mindfulness is associated with a diminished emotional response, or with faster recovery. We presented participants with target pictures embedded in a rapid visual presentation stream. The targets could be preceded by negative, neutral or scrambled critical distractors. We showed that dispositional mindfulness, in particular the Non-reacting facet, was related to faster disengagement of attention from emotional stimuli. These results could have implications for mood disorders characterised by an exaggerated attentional bias toward emotional stimuli, such as anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorders.     

Reliability and validity of the Basic Depression Questionnaire

Background/ObjectiveDepressive disorders have a high prevalence around the world. They present a great comorbidity with other disorders like anxiety, thereby making a differential diagnosis very difficult. The Basic Depression Questionnaire was designed to palliate this issue by isolating specific depression symptoms. Our aim is to study the reliability, factorial structure, and differential item functioning of this questionnaire. Method: The sample consisted of 1,397 adults without psychological problems (M_age = 29.76, SD = 11.25, 64.78% women) who completed the CBD. Results: We observed that none of the items presented differential functioning. A monofactorial structure was established. In this model a good fit was obtained by confirmatory factor analysis and a strict invariance by sex. The ordinal alpha was used to check the reliability and it fetched an index of .95. Conclusions: The Basic Depression Questionnaire has adequate psychometric properties. The absence of differential item functioning and the invariance by sex are guarantees of an adequate use to diagnose depression for men and women. So, its clinical use can help to differentiate between the specific diagnoses for depressive disorders and anxiety disorders.     

A game-to-game investigation of the relation between need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching and moral behavior in soccer

ObjectiveAlthough perceived need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching have received considerable attention, the question whether coach behavior fluctuates from game to game, with resulting associations with players’ moral behavior has not been examined.Design and methodA Belgian sample of soccer players (N = 197; M = 26.57) was followed during five competition games, with players completing measures both prior to and following each game assessing, pre-game and on-game perceived coaching as well as athletes’ moral behavior.ResultsResults of multilevel analyses indicated that there exists substantial variation in perceived need-thwarting and need-supportive coaching behavior from game to game. The game-to-game variation in perceived pre-game need-thwarting coaching behavior related positively to variation in the adoption of an objectifying stance, which, in turn, related to variation in antisocial behavior oriented towards the opponent, the referee, and even their own teammates. Variation in perceived on-game need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching behavior yielded an additional relation to team-related moral outcomes. Finally, supplementary analysis indicated that these effects also held for an objective marker of moral functioning (i.e., number of yellow cards) and that players’ level of competition-contingent pay related to their antisocial behavior via an objectifying stance.ConclusionThe discussion highlights the fluctuating and dynamic nature of motivating coaching behavior, and its association with players’ moral functioning.