Learning Abilities and Disabilities: Generalist Genes, Specialist Environments

ABSTRACT— Twin studies comparing identical and fraternal twins consistently show substantial genetic influence on individual differences in learning abilities such as reading and mathematics, as well as in other cognitive abilities such as spatial ability and memory. Multivariate genetic research has shown that the same set of genes is largely responsible for genetic influence on these diverse cognitive areas. We call these "generalist genes." What differentiates these abilities is largely the environment, especially nonshared environments that make children growing up in the same family different from one another. These multivariate genetic findings of generalist genes and specialist environments have far-reaching implications for diagnosis and treatment of learning disabilities and for understanding the brain mechanisms that mediate these effects.     

Early precursors and enabling skills of reading acquisition

Research on early linguistic precursors and enabling skills of reading acquisition among young children is reviewed. Language development starts early in infancy when the child learns to categorize the speech sounds according to the pattern typical of the mother tongue. Equipped with these sound categories the child is ready to learn to segment words from the sound stream and to understand and to use words. The precise phonological representation of words will facilitate the important development of phonological awareness, a basic prerequisite for reading acquisition. This paper reviews some of my longitudinal research and training studies indicating the causal direction of the relation between phonological awareness and reading and includes some ongoing studies, where gender differences, socio‐economic factors, dose‐response‐effects and motivational factors are explored. Preventive and remedial implications of the findings are pointed out. Finally, the complexity of the causal relationships between different aspects of early language development, including genetic influences and later reading is pointed out.     

英语文章阅读过程中的文章标记效应研究

该研究通过三个实验探讨高职生英语阅读的文章标记效应。实验一探讨文章标记对阅读英语长、短文章的影响,结果发现文章标记对英语长文章主题信息保持的促进作用大于对英语短文章主题信息的促进作用。实验二以EyelinkⅡ型眼动仪为工具,考察被试阅读有、无标记文章的主题句的眼动模式的差异,结果发现被试阅读这两类主题句的眼动模式存在显著差异。实验三考察对被试进行文章结构策略训练对文章标记效应的影响,结果发现训练促进了被试对无标记英语长文章主题信息的保持,研究结果支持策略转换假设。     

'The healing power of love': The literary/analytic bond of marriage in Freud's essay on Gradiva

Freud 's declared position regarding the management of 'transference love' advocated 'abstinence', objectivity and even 'emotional coldness in the analyst'. However, his essay on Jensen's Gradiva reveals an identification with an involved and responsive 'maternal' analytic position associated with theorists such as Ferenczi, Balint and Winnicott. These theorists attribute the origins of transference love to the pre-oedipal stage, shaping their analytic model on the basis of the early relationship with the mother. Freud generally had difficulty identifying with such a position, since it entailed addressing his own inner feminine aspects. Yet a literary analysis of his 'Gradiva' reveals this stance in his textual performance, i.e. in the ways in which he reads and retells Jensen's story. Freud 's narration not only expresses identification with Zoe, the female protagonist, but also idealizes her 'therapeutic' conduct, which is closer in spirit to that of object-relations theorists. His subtext even implies, however unintended, that an ideal treatment of transference love culminates in a psychical 'marriage' bond between the analytic couple, a metaphor used by Winnicott to describe the essence of the mother–baby (analyst/patient) bond. Freud 's reading process is itself analogous to Zoe's 'therapeutic' conduct, in that both perform a creative and involved interaction with the text/patient.     

An investigation of the psychometric evidence of CBM-R passage equivalence: Utility of readability statistics and equating for alternate forms

Claims have been made that grade appropriate curriculum-based measurement of reading (CBM-R) passages are of comparable difficulty and can be used interchangeably to monitor student progress. Empirical evidence to support claims of equivalence has been lacking. This research investigated the basis for making claims of equivalence. The use of readability statistics to justify passage equivalence was found to be lacking. Using a general measurement model for congeneric tests, CBM-R passages were found to measure a single latent factor with a high degree of reliability. However, evidence indicated that the raw scores, words read correctly per minute, across passages did not provide equivalent measurements. Statistical equating was investigated as an approach to overcome the lack of equivalence with promising results.     

A preliminary investigation of within-year growth patterns in reading and mathematics curriculum-based measures

This study examined patterns of growth across benchmark assessments for curriculum-based measures (CBM) over 2 academic years, with the twofold purpose of replicating earlier findings of growth patterns on R-CBM and conducting a preliminary investigation of growth patterns on M-CBM and CBM-Maze. The sample included 898 cases from 3rd through 5th grade over 2 academic years from one elementary school in the rural Midwest. All students participated in tri-annual benchmark assessments in which they were administered R-CBM, CBM-Maze, and M-CBM. Repeated measures analysis of variance was used to examine patterns of growth for all three measures. Students demonstrated greater R-CBM weekly growth during winter-to-spring than fall-to-winter across grade levels. Patterns for CBM-Maze and M-CBM were somewhat inconsistent across school years and grade levels. Results are discussed in terms of contextual variables that may impact within-year growth patterns and technical characteristics of CBM slopes.     

中文阅读中的边界效应及其消除：事件持续效应

运用动窗技术探讨中文阅读中的边界效应及其消除的条件,包括3个实验。实验一探讨中文阅读中是否存在边界效应,结果发现,边界效应同样存在于中文阅读中;实验二、三探讨时间切分标记能否消除边界效应以及消除的条件,结果发现,只有当切分标记表示的时间在前一事件持续的时间跨度外时才能消除边界效应,如果切分标记表示的时间仍在前一事件持续的时间跨度内,则不能消除边界效应,本研究称此为事件持续效应。从本研究结果中可以得出,时间切分标记降低了主题转换句子所需要的认知加工能量     

高中二年级学生双字词阅读知觉广度的眼动研究

采用“呈现随眼动变化技术”对12名高中二年级学生的双字词阅读知觉广度进行了眼动研究。结果发现：（1）高中二年级学生的双字词阅读知觉广度具有不对称性。（2）高中二年级学生的双字词阅读知觉广度为注视点左侧一个双字词到右侧两个双字词的空间。     

Environmental influences on reading‐related outcomes: an adoption study

Evidence from intervention studies, quantitative genetic and molecular genetic studies suggests that genetic, and to a lesser extent, shared environmental influences are important to the development of reading and related cognitive skills. The Northeast‐Northwest Collaborative Adoption Projects (N2CAP) is a sample of 241 adoptive families, containing 354 children and their adoptive parents. Negative parent outcome × child age interactions significantly predicted child outcomes, suggesting that shared environmental influences related to parent–offspring resemblance, although modest, are most salient in younger children. Additional analyses suggested that identified measures of the family environment largely accounted for these parent–offspring correlations. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

腹侧通路与背侧通路在词汇阅读中的作用

腹侧通路与背侧通路是视觉加工的两条通路。随着认知神经科学的发展,研究发现腹侧和背侧通路与词汇阅读有关。其中腹侧通路与词汇识别有关,背侧通路与阅读的关系比较复杂。本文简要回顾了两条通路在词汇阅读中的作用。