Effects of hands-free cellular phone conversational cognitive tasks on driving stability based on driving simulation experiment

Driver distraction due to cellular phone usage is a major contributing factor to road crashes. This study compares the effects of conversational cognitive tasks using hands-free cellular phone on driving performance under three distraction conditions: (1) no distraction (no cellular conversation), (2) normal conversation (non-emotional cellular conversation), and (3) seven-level mathematical calculations. A car-following scenario was implemented using a driving simulator. Thirty young drivers with an average age of 24.1 years maintained a constant speed and distance between the subject vehicle and a leading vehicle on the driving simulator, and then respond to the leading vehicle’s emergency stop. The driving performances were assessed by collecting and statistically analyzing several variables of maneuver stability: the drivers’ brake reaction times, driving speed fluctuation, car-following distance undulation, and car-following time-headway undulation. The results revealed that normal conversation on a hands-free cellular phone impaired driving performance. The degree of impairment caused by normal calculation was equivalent to the distraction caused by Level 3 mathematical calculations according to the seven-level calculation baseline. The calculation difficulty of Level 3 is one double-digit figure plus a single-digit figure, and non-carry addition mental arithmetic is required, e.g., 44 + 4. The results indicated that an increase in the level of complexity of the calculation task was associated with an increase in brake reaction time. The seven-level calculation-task baseline could be applied to measure additional distraction effects on driving performance for further comparison.     

Hazard perception abilities of experienced and novice motorcyclists: An interactive simulator experiment

This study reports an experiment that compared the hazard perception abilities of experienced and novice motorcycle riders using an interactive, closed-loop, simulator. Participants (n = 49) were categorized into four groups: experienced motorcycle riders with full driver licence, inexperienced motorcycle riders with full driver licence, novice motorcycle riders with full driver licence, and novice motorcycle riders with probationary driver licence. The participants were tested on three scenarios, each consisting of eight hazardous events. They were instructed to ride normally, but to respond appropriately to avoid the hazards. Under certain conditions in the simulator, we found that experienced riders (relative to inexperienced or novice riders) crashed less often, received better performance evaluations, and approached hazards at more appropriate speeds. Interestingly, we also found that some novice riders were overconfident in their riding ability. We discuss how this overconfidence might be related to hazard perception.     

After you?! – Use of external human-machine interfaces in road bottleneck scenarios

In the near future, automated vehicles (AVs) will enter the urban transport system. This fact will lead to mixed traffic consisting of AVs, human car drivers and vulnerable road users. Since the AV’s passenger no longer has to monitor the driving scene, conventional communication does not exist anymore, which is essential for traffic efficiency and safety. In research, there are plenty of studies focusing on how AVs could communicate with pedestrians. One approach is to use external human-machine interfaces (eHMIs) on the AV’s surface. In contrast to the studies dealing with AV-pedestrian communication, this paper focuses on communication strategies of AVs with drivers of regular vehicles in different road bottleneck scenarios. The eHMI development and design is building on previously defined requirements and on fundamentals of human visual perception. After designing several eHMI drafts, we conducted a user survey with 29 participants resulting in the final eHMI concept. The evaluation of the evolved eHMI was conducted in a driving simulator experiment with 43 participants investigating the AV-human driver interaction at road bottlenecks. The participants were assigned either to the experimental group being faced with the eHMI or to the baseline group without explicit communication. The results show significantly shorter passing times and fewer crashes among the human drivers in the group with the eHMI. Additionally, the paper researches the aftereffects of an automation failure, where the AV first yields the right of way and then changes its strategy and insisted on priority. Experiencing the automation failure is reflected in increased passing times, reduced acceptance ratings and a lower perceived usefulness. In conclusion, especially in unregulated bottleneck scenarios flawless communication via eHMIs increases traffic efficiency and safety.     

A qualitative study of young drivers and deterrence based road policing

Deterrence theory is the predominant theory used to underpin road policing initiatives. However, survey research indicates that this approach may not be as effective for young drivers. This study uses focus groups, conducted in both metropolitan and regional locations in two Australian states (Queensland and Victoria), to explore three components of classical deterrence theory: certainty, severity & swiftness. The results suggest that geographical context affected perceptions of certainty with individuals from regional locations less likely to indicate that they would be caught by police for committing a traffic offence. Additionally, the use of cameras to detect road offences increased perceptions of certainty for young drivers. The results of this study suggest that police agencies should focus on undertaking actions to increase the perceptions of certainty swiftness and severity of punishment, particularly in regional areas, for young drivers who engage in illegal behaviour on the road. Where appropriate, these actions should take into account the geographical context. There may also be value in considering augmenting deterrence theory with other theoretical perspectives for this group.     

It’s all in the mind: The relationship between mindfulness and nomophobia on technology engagement while driving and aberrant driving behaviours

This study investigated the relationship between mindfulness and nomophobia on technology engagement while driving and aberrant driving behaviours. Nine hundred and ninety participants completed an online survey (Female: 68.6%; Age: M = 51.2 years, SD = 15.7, Range = 18.0–84.0 years) that assessed mindfulness, nomophobia, technology engagement while driving, aberrant driving behaviour, and self-reported crashes and infringements during the past two years. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to examine the relationships between mindfulness and nomophobia, on one hand, with self-reported engagement with technology while driving and general aberrant driving behaviours (combination of errors, lapses and violations) on the other. The results of the SEM showed that, as expected, mindfulness shared negative relationships with nomophobia, engagement with technology and aberrant driving behaviours, while all other relationships were positive. In terms of engagement with technology, there were direct and indirect paths between nomophobia and mindfulness and engagement with technology. The results of this study demonstrate the positive influence mindfulness can have on nomophobia, engagement with technology while driving, and dangerous driving behaviours that have been associated with crash risk. Mindfulness practices may reduce the effect of nomophobia on engagement with technology while driving and increased dangerous behaviours as a result. This will be increasingly important as modern work and social practices encourage people to increasingly use the phone while driving, and the technology within smart devices, and connectivity of these to the vehicle, increase. More research is needed to understand whether mindfulness-based interventions can reduce nomophobia, and thereby improve driving behaviours and reduce crash rates.     

The prevalence of in-vehicle driving distractions in road traffic collisions as a function of road type

While some previous research suggests that conversing with passengers is the most prevalent in-vehicle distraction while driving, others have concluded instead that it is mobile phone use. One possible explanation for these differences is that distraction prevalence varies with road type. To test this proposal the current study investigated the prevalence of in-vehicle driving distraction in road traffic collisions (RTCs) as recorded in national records from the US and New Zealand. Analysis using odds ratios suggested conversing with passengers to be a more prevalent distraction in RTCs on minor roads than on major roads, and mobile phone use to be a more prevalent distraction on major roads than on minor roads. These results show the importance of considering the type of road when investigating the prevalence of driving distractions in RTCs in future research.     

How does emotional intelligence predict driving behaviors among non-commercial drivers?

Dangerous driving behaviors have been found to be a leading contributor to vehicle crashes and fatalities, with more than 2.7 million people injured and 36,560 people killed in the United States in 2018 (NHTSA, 2020). Drivers’ emotions have been found to be among the leading contributors to dangerous driving behaviors. Emotions can be measured and understood through one’s emotional intelligence (EI). Previous research has confirmed the relationship between EI and dangerous driving behaviors among general driving populations in limited scope. This study analyzed dangerous driving behaviors (e.g., aggressive driving) among non-commercial US drivers. 615 US drivers ages 18 to 65 (M = 31.14, SD = 11.15) with valid US driver’s licenses (non-commercial) participated in this study. Participants completed an online survey through Qualtrics that included the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue-SF) to measure different dimensions of EI and the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) and the Driving Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) to measure dangerous driving behaviors. Furthermore, participants reported their demographic information, including age, sex, and location. Correlation analysis revealed that significant associations exist between dangerous driving behaviors and EI. The emotionality component of EI was found to be the strongest predictor of dangerous driving behaviors. The findings concluded that participants with higher EI scores engaged in less dangerous driving behavior, resulting in fewer crashes and fatalities. Thus, promoting and improving EI may be useful in preventing risky driving among non-commercial drivers. Incorporating emotional intelligence education in driver’s education, workplace training, and licensing procedures can be helpful to develop safer drivers. Further research is needed to investigate commercial drivers’ behaviors in relation to EI.     

The influence of fatalistic beliefs and risk perceptions on road safety attitudes in Latin America; A two-country study

Road safety is a major challenge in the Latin American region; however, there is a significant lack of research undertaken there. To contribute to addressing this gap, this paper reports on an exploration of the antecedents of traffic safety attitudes in two Latin American contexts: Brazil and Ecuador. Building on related work undertaken in other countries, the research explored the relationships between fatalistic beliefs, traffic risk perceptions, and road safety attitudes, while accounting for age, gender, and exposure to the road environment. Data from 2432 individuals, analysed using Structural Equation Modelling, revealed differences in the extent to which different fatalistic belief constructs (including divine control, luck, helplessness, internality, and general fatalism) were related to road safety attitudes. Moreover, fatalistic beliefs were found to influence road safety attitudes both directly and indirectly through their influence on risk perceptions. Those that reported more fatalistic beliefs also reported more dangerous attitudes to road safety and a lower perception of on-road risk. Mirroring findings from work undertaken in other countries, we found males compared to females and younger compared to older respondents to report more dangerous attitudes to road safety, with inconclusive results for risk perceptions. We also found very similar patterns of results in the data from the two countries included in the research. Results are discussed with regards to informing the design of road safety interventions aimed at influencing individual road user attitudes and, ultimately, human behaviour and system performance.     

What is the motor vehicle crash risk for drivers with a sleep disorder?

In many parts of the world, drivers with serious sleep disorders have restrictions on their licence – with the fitness-to-drive criteria varying across licensing jurisdictions. This study aimed to systematically review the literature that evaluated the available scientific evidence for the relationship between sleep disorders and two driving safety outcome measures: (i) motor vehicle crashes (MVC) and (ii) on-road driving test outcome. This review was registered with PROSPERO in July 2019 (see CRD42019144643). A systematic search of public health, psychology and transport databases was conducted on November 8th, 2019. The quality of evidence for each study was rated using the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Quality Assessment tools. Thirty-nine studies published between 1976 and 2015 met the inclusion criteria (n = 9 case-control; n = 24 cohort/cross-sectional; n = 6 before-after). Overall, the quality of evidence for 22 studies was rated as ‘good’, nine as ‘fair’ and eight as ‘poor’. Included studies addressed: sleep apnoea and sleep-related breathing disorders (n = 35); central disorders of hypersomnolence and narcolepsy (n = 5), and insomnia (n = 2), with some studies covering multiple sleep disorders. Of the thirty-five studies specifically investigating MVC risk associated with sleep apnoea, eighteen studies reported an increased risk (n = 11 ‘good’, n = 4 ‘fair’, n = 3 ‘poor’ quality), seven reported no difference in risk (n = 3 ‘good’, n = 4 ‘fair’ quality), and two provided inconclusive findings (n = 1 ‘good’, n = 1 ‘fair’ quality). Most studies suggested that increased sleep apnoea severity was associated with an increased MVC risk. Furthermore, untreated sleep apnoea was predominantly associated with increased risk, whilst decreased risk was associated with Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) and uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) treatments. Five studies (n = 3 ‘good’, n = 2 ‘fair’ quality) investigated MVC risk associated with disorders of hypersomnolence and narcolepsy, and all reported increased risk. Only two studies investigated MVC risk associated with insomnia, with inconsistent findings: one reporting increased MVC risk (‘good’) and one reporting no difference (‘fair’). Regarding impacts on on-road driving test outcome, our comprehensive search found no studies investigating the association between sleep disorders and this driving safety outcome measure. Notwithstanding the limitations of the included studies, the weight of evidence suggests a moderately elevated MVC risk for drivers with sleep disorders (sleep apnoea; hypersomnia and narcolepsy), with the majority reporting around two and a half times higher risk, and lower risk with treatment. This evidence is consistent with current fitness-to-drive guidelines, most of which specify licence restrictions conditional upon severity, treatment compliance and effective response to treatment. The generalisability of the findings is limited as many identified studies had methodological limitations, were conducted across a wide time period, in numerous licensing jurisdictions with different requirements, and across a diverse range of participant populations. A large-scale, population-based controlled study, in multiple licensing jurisdictions with equivalent licensing and fitness-to-drive requirements, is warranted to rigorously investigate MVC risk and sleep disorders, including evaluating the possible benefit of therapies.