Avoidance extinction in goldfish

Independent groups of goldfish trained to avoid shock in a shuttlebox situation were presented with several extinction procedures in which the relationships between the conditioned stimulus and shock were altered and/or response contingencies removed. Random shock presentations, equivalent to the number of shocks received during avoidance acquisition, resulted in response decrements similar to those obtained when the conditioned stimulus was presented alone. Pairing the conditioned stimulus with shock on every trial, however, served to maintain response levels. When response-contingent punishment was superimposed upon these Pavlovian pairings, performance was facilitated slightly although punishment alone resulted in somewhat faster response reduction than that produced by exposure only to the conditioned stimulus. Extinction of avoidance responding produced by exposure to the conditioned stimulus alone was dependent on the total duration of exposure and independent of both number of stimulus onsets and response prevention. These experiments demonstrated that, in general, the procedures used to reduce avoidance responding in rats were equally effective for goldfish, with one exception: the introduction of a Pavlovian contingency following avoidance acquisition, making the previously avoidable shock unavoidable, maintained response probabilities near previously established levels.     

The generality of learned helplessness in the rat

Two experiments were simultaneously conducted in which two different groups of 40 rats each were exposed to one of two different stressors. In both experiments half the subjects were pretreated with shock, half with underwater exposure. For each pretreatment stressor, half the subjects were allowed to escape, the other half were not. The experiments differed in the test task used. Approximately 24 hr after pretreatment, one-half the subjects from each pretreatment group received 20 water-escape trials in an underwater maze, the other half received 20 shock-escape trials in a two-way shuttle box. The subjects in each of the inescapable pretreatment conditions were slower to escape in the subsequent shock-escape and water-escape tasks when compared with subjects in the corresponding escapable pretreatment condition. The “learned helplessness” effect appeared to be no smaller when aversive stimuli were changed between pretreatment and test than when they remained the same.     

Vicious-circle behavior in the Y maze

Laboratory rats were given escape training in both arms of a Y maze followed by extinction in one of four conditions: regular (no shock), punished (both arms containing a shock mid-segment), choice, or forced (one arm containing a shock mid-segment, one arm shock free). Subjects in the punished and forced conditions required more extinction trials than those in the regular extinction condition. The choice condition was intermediate and not significantly different from the others. Choice subjects avoided the shock by choosing the safe alley early and consistently during extinction, but some continued to run for many trials without further punishment. It was suggested that the number of punished trials early in extinction is related to persistence of running, and the results were discussed in relation to the Mowrer-Brown and the discrimination hypotheses.     

The sensory basis of avoidance responding in the rat : Relative dominance of auditory or visual warning signals and safety signals

Three experiments determined the relative degree of stimulus control exerted by the elements of a compound auditory-visual stimulus when this stimulus was presented in various temporal relationships to a barpress avoidance response. When the compound discriminative stimulus for barpress avoidance responding consisted of onset of white noise and onset of either light or darkness, the white noise always exerted dominant control. When the compound discriminative stimulus consisted of offset of white noise and onset of light, neither element controlled avoidance responding. On the other hand, when a barpress avoidance response produced a compound feedback stimulus consisting of onset of white noise and onset of either light or darkness, the visual element always exerted dominant control. When the compound feedback stimulus consisted of offset of white noise and onset of light, both elements exerted stimulus control.     

Reinforcing fluency in stutterers: An experimental study

Subject-specific periods of fluent reading responses of three adult stutterers were positively reinforced with the presentation of a dime. Subjects were run individually through a sequence of two base rate, two experimental, and two extinction sessions, each session lasting 45 min. Periods of fluent reading responses increased during the experimental condition for each of the three subjects. When the reinforcer was withdrawn during the extinction condition, the frequency of fluent periods showed a decrease. Concomitantly, disfluencies decreased during the experimental condition and they increased during the extinction condition. The clinical implications of fluency manipulation as against disfluency manipulation are discussed.     

A technique for controlling speech disfluencies induced by delayed auditory feedback

On the basis of cybernetic models of speech it was hypothesized that “stuttering” induced by delayed auditory feedback could be significantly reduced if the Ss were provided with an alternate input to which they could attend. The results of the experiment supported the hypothesis. The possible implications for the treatment stuttering are discussed.     

The transcoding processes in patients with agraphia to dictation

The main purpose of the present study is to prove that the mechanism of transcoding, that is, of transposition of certain units of a sign system into the corresponding ones of another sign system, is an independent mechanism. We attempted to demonstrate this thesis with reference to certain transcoding processes within the verbal function of writing to dictation, in particular, by examining the agraphic disturbances in aphasics on this form of writing. We found that this type of agraphia in patients with an intact input stage (i.e., intact auditory and visual word perception) but with a blocked shift from the phonetic to the graphemic level (even in cases with intact auditory and visual word perception), or in those with a blocked shift to the grapho-motor one (even in cases with intact copying), is due to disturbed mechanisms of transcoding. The fact that in patients with pure writing-to-dictation disability copied writing is not disturbed proves that the transcoding process is selectively blocked. Transcoding processes in copying and total agraphia are discussed by comparison.     

Numerical taxonomy of aphasia

Two hundred consecutively seen aphasics, 142 of them with infarcts, were examined by tests of fluency, comprehension, repetition, naming, and information content. The language scores were subjected to a minimum variance clustering algorithm separately for the total and for the infarct groups. The latter generated 10 clusters on a dendrogram. Attribute analysis of each cluster provided a clinically meaningful profile of language performance for these groups. The degree of correlation of most computer generated clusters with clinically recognized groups was high, and the homogeneity of some of the clusters is striking. An exception appears to be “conduction aphasia,” which is bimodally distributed. One of these clusters, with high fluency and low comprehension scores, was renamed “afferent conduction” aphasia, and the other, with lower fluency and higher comprehension, was renamed “efferent conduction” aphasia. The Principal Components Analysis was used to evaluate the discriminatory value of language characteristics, and the Nearest Neighbor Network Analysis was used to evaluate the significance of clustering. The dendrogram for all aphasics showed a less specific and less homogenous six clusters.     

Perception of nonlinguistic auditory rhythms by the speech hemisphere

Two groups of right-handed young adults were tested on a series of handedness measures and on dichotic nonverbal rhythmic sequences. Cross-validated multiple regression analysis revealed that all of the cerebral-lateralization/manual-praxis measures were positively related to the degree of left-hemisphere perceptual asymmetry for nonverbal rhythms (Crawford peg, scissor, handwriting, Crawford screws, tracing, total R = .67). Seventeen of the 52 subjects manifested significant (p < .05) left-hemisphere laterality coefficients for the dichotic stimuli. More complex rhythms elicited greater left-hemisphere perceptual preference. The results are discussed in reference to the concept of cerebral lateralization.     

The processing of fundamental frequency in a dichotic matching task

The temporal characteristics of auditory memory were investigated using a reaction time paradigm. The study attempted to determine whether or not there are functionally distinct left and right hemisphere components of auditory memory with different capacities for the retention of nonlinguistic information, such as fundamental frequency, over the course of several seconds. The results indicated that fundamental frequency information in auditory memory remains substantially unchanged over the course of 2 sec. No evidence was found for the existence of separate left and right hemisphere components of auditory memory with different temporal characteristics. The implications of this finding for the organization of auditory memory in the brain are discussed.