The influence of biased exposure to forgone outcomes

After making decisions, we often get feedback concerning forgone outcomes (what would have happened had we chosen differently). Yet, many times, our exposure to such feedback is systematically biased. For example, your friends are more likely to tell you about a party you missed if it was fun than if it was boring. Despite its prevalence, the effects of biased exposure to forgone outcomes on future choice have not been directly studied. In three studies (five experiments) using a simplified learning task, we study the basic influence of biased exposure to forgone outcomes in the extreme case in which decision makers can easily infer the missing information such that the biased exposure carries almost no informational value. The results in all studies suggest that nevertheless, the biased exposure to forgone outcomes affected choice. Exposure to forgone outcomes only when they were better than the obtained outcomes (Only-Better-Forgone) increased selections of the forgone option compared with exposure to forgone outcomes only when they were worse than the obtained outcome (Only-Worse-Forgone). Moreover, relative to an unbiased exposure to all forgone outcomes, the effect of exposure to Only-Worse-Forgone was larger than the effect of exposure to Only-Better-Forgone feedback. However, these effects were not universal: In environments that include rare negative events (“disasters”), biased exposure to forgone outcomes had very little effect. We raise potential explanations and further discuss implications for marketing and risk awareness.     

Emotion matters: The influence of valence on episodic future thinking in young and older adults

In young adults, valence not only alters the degree to which future events are imagined in rich episodic detail, but also how memorable these events are later on. For older adults, how valence influences episodic detail generation while imagining future events, or recalling these details at another time, remains unclear. We investigated the effect of valence on the specificity and memorability of episodic future thinking (EFT) in young and older adults. Among young and older adults, negative EFT was accompanied by less episodic detail generation relative to positive and neutral EFT. A similar reduction in episodic specificity for negative EFT was found two days later when participants recalled their previously imagined events. Notably, while older adults generated less episodically specific future thoughts relative to young adults, age did not influence the effect of valence on episodic detail generation at imagination or recollection.     

Relationship between environmental factors and burnout of psychotherapists: Meta‐analytic approach

The present study aims to extend the scope of understanding on the relationships between environmental factors and burnout symptoms by targeting and including more extensive occupational demanding variables related to therapist burnout. The present study includes not only common occupational stressors (e.g., working hours, role overload and role conflict) but also variables reflecting the quality of relationship with clients (e.g., case load and negative clientele) that have not been dealt with before in meta‐analytic studies. A meta‐analysis was conducted on 27 original studies published from the year 2006 to 2018. The findings showed that, among environmental factors, role overload had the most significant positive correlations with exhaustion. In addition, negative clientele had the most significant positive correlations with depersonalisation and reduced accomplishment. Furthermore, caseload and low income had relatively weak relations with therapist burnout. Based on these results, implications and limitations of the study are discussed.     

消极身体意象对青少年的负面影响

消极身体意象是青少年健康成长所面临的重要问题之一。了解消极身体意象对青少年的危害以及其形成的影响因素, 对于青少年群体身心健康发展具有重要意义。消极身体意象对青少年的负面影响主要包括自我概念、情绪体验、体重控制策略、饮食失调和社会生活五个方面; 并且青少年消极身体意象形成的影响因素主要有生物因素(BMI)、社会文化因素(父母、同伴和大众媒体)和心理因素(人格因素、认知方式)。未来可从以下几个方面进一步深入研究：(1) 基于生物-心理-社会模型的视角完善青少年身体意象发展的理论模型; (2) 考察社交媒体等新兴因素的作用; (3) 阐明青少年在加工身体相关信息时的认知特点; (4) 推进中国青少年消极身体意象本土化研究。     

父母消极教养方式对中国性少数心理健康的影响：基于Bifactor模型

中国性少数群体普遍存在严重的心理健康问题,家庭是其最大的压力来源。在性少数压力模型的背景下,本研究基于Bifactor模型探究父母消极教养方式对中国性少数（LGB）心理健康的特殊影响。采用父母教养方式问卷、抑郁-焦虑-压力量表和金赛量表对649名LGB进行网络问卷调查,结果发现：（1）父母消极教养方式的Bifactor模型存在部分差异;（2）对于LGB心理健康,父母消极教养方式的一般因子和拒绝特殊因子具有损害作用,过度保护特殊因子具有保护作用。     

逻辑训练对不同理性思维方式大学生三段论推理的影响

采用理性—经验思维方式量表对105名大学生进行测量,选出高、低理性思维方式各35名大学生进行实验,探讨了逻辑训练对不同理性思维方式大学生三段论推理的影响。结果表明：(1)高理性思维方式个体三段论推理的平均反应时快于低理性思维方式个体;非冲突类型题目推理的平均正确率高于冲突类型题目;逻辑训练可以提高个体三段论推理的平均反应时和正确率;(2)逻辑训练后非冲突任务类型题目的平均正确率高于冲突任务类型题目;(3)逻辑训练对低理性思维方式个体冲突任务类型题目平均正确率的提高效果更明显。这意味着逻辑训练可以显著提升个体的推理成绩,但不能完全消除信念偏差对推理的影响,而且逻辑训练对低理性思维方式个体推理成绩的提升效果更加明显。     

情绪的相容性对创造性思维的影响

为探讨具身内隐情绪和外显情绪之间的相容性和不相容性对创造性思维的影响,实验采用情绪视频启动范式诱发被试的积极情绪或消极情绪,同时采用面部表情操纵技术诱导其具身积极情绪或具身消极情绪,然后要求被试完成创造性思维测验中的替代使用任务（AUT）与顿悟字谜测验。结果发现：在积极情绪下,情绪相容组的AUT流畅性得分显著高于情绪不相容组;而在消极情绪下,情绪相容组的AUT原创性得分与顿悟字谜得分显著高于情绪不相容组;灵活性在两种情绪条件下的差异均不显著。结果表明,面部表情和外显情绪的相容性有利于创造性思维的表现,积极情绪和消极情绪下的情绪相容性分别影响着创造性思维的不同成分。     

An evaluation of simultaneous and sequential presentation of preferred and nonpreferred food to treat food selectivity

In the current investigation, we compared two methods of food presentation (simultaneous vs. sequential) to increase consumption of nonpreferred food for 3 children with food selectivity. In the simultaneous condition, preferred foods were presented at the same time as nonpreferred food (e.g., a piece of broccoli was presented on a chip). In the sequential condition, acceptance of the nonpreferred food resulted in presentation of the preferred food. Increases in consumption occurred immediately during the simultaneous condition for 2 of the 3 participants. For 1 participant, increases in consumption occurred in the simultaneous condition relative to the sequential condition, but only after physical guidance and re-presentation were added to treatment. Finally, consumption increased for 1 participant in the sequential condition, but only after several sessions. These results are discussed in terms of possible mechanisms that may alter preferences for food (i.e., establishing operations, flavor-flavor conditioning).     

Timeout postponement without increased reinforcement frequency

Three experiments were conducted to examine pigeons' postponement of signaled extinction periods (timeouts) from a schedule of food reinforcement when such responding neither decreased overall timeout frequency nor increased the overall frequency of food reinforcement. A discrete-trial procedure was used in which a response during the first 5 s of a trial postponed an otherwise immediate 60-s timeout to a later part of that same trial but had no effect on whether the timeout occurred. During time-in periods, responses on a second key produced food according to a random-interval 20-s schedule. In Experiment 1, the response-timeout interval was 45 s under postponement conditions and 0 s under extinction conditions (responses were ineffective in postponing timeouts). The percentage of trials with a response was consistently high when the timeout-postponement contingency was in effect and decreased to low levels when it was discontinued under extinction conditions. In Experiment 2, the response-timeout interval was also 45 s but postponement responses increased the duration of the timeout, which varied from 60 s to 105 s across conditions. Postponement responding was maintained, generally at high levels, at all timeout durations, despite sometimes large decreases in the overall frequency of food reinforcement. In Experiment 3, timeout duration was held constant at 60 s while the response-timeout interval was varied systematically across conditions from 0 s to 45 s. Postponement responding was maintained under all conditions in which the response-timeout interval exceeded 0 s (the timeout interval in the absence of a response). In some conditions of Experiment 3, which were designed to control for the immediacy of food reinforcement and food-correlated (time-in) stimuli, responding postponed timeout but the timeout was delayed whether a response occurred or not. Responding was maintained for 2 of 3 subjects, suggesting that behavior was negatively reinforced by timeout postponement rather than positively reinforced by the more immediate presentation of food or food-correlated (time-in) stimuli.     

Relational Levels of the “Container-Contained” in Group Therapy

The cornerstone of W. R. Bion's theory of individual and group development is that thinking is a primary emotional need, and it matures in the context of social communication. Bion (1970) formulated the essential relationship between thinking and communicating in terms of the container-contained relationship. Bion (1970) described three types of communication, occurring on different levels of development: commensal, symbiotic, and parasitic. These patterns involve normal and pathological variations of the container-contained and call for different expressions of the therapist's subjectivity. In this paper, I describe each of these alterations as they apply to group therapy and to therapeutic activity. I include case examples of how I utilize the conceptual framework in my work.