Linguistic analysis of a bilingual stutterer

The ultimate test of the adequacy of linguistic models of fluency breakdown is the degree to which they may account for patterns of dysfluency in the speech of a stutterer who is fluent in more than one language. We present the case of an adult bilingual stutterer (Spanish-English), whose spontaneous language in both Spanish and English was structurally analyzed to assess the relationships of phonological and syntactic structure to the frequency and location of fluency breakdown. Our findings suggest that syntax is probably a greater determinant of stuttered moments than is phonology. Additionally, similarities and differences between English and Spanish sentence structure were associated with similarities and differences in the loci of dysfluencies across the two languages. The need for crosslinguistic research utilizing monolingual and bilingual speakers of languages other than English is emphasized.     

Participative work as an influence on human development

A number of business and industries in the United States and Europe have been experimenting with ways to involve more employees in organizational decision-making and problem-solving activities. Although the goal of such experiments in participative work is usually to improve productivity and enhance morale, there is evidence that working in such firms enhances adult development. This article reviews this evidence, focusing on how the experience of working in a participative milieu affects the individual in ways that are manifested off the job—in the family and community. Suggestions are made for future research that would involve developmental psychologists in helping work organizations experiment with planned social change.     

Ethnic and sex differences in occupational stereotyping by elementary school children

As part of the formative evaluation of an educational television and print package, fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade public school Black, Hispanic, and Anglo children were surveyed regarding career choice and perceptions of the appropriateness of selected occupations for male and female adults and children. Responses were analyzed by ethnic membership and sex. Results indicated that in general Hispanic and Anglo girls chose more non traditional, higher-status occupations than Black girls. For boys, however, there was no clear interaction between sex and ethnic group in career choice. Girls and boys in all three ethnic groups indicated preference for careers stereotyped for their own sex, although girls—particularly Anglo girls—showed a greater tendency to cross sex-stereotyped lines. In addition, while both girls and boys in all three groups stereotyped as appropriate only for females those occupations regarded as traditionally female, traditionally male occupations were stereotyped more frequently by boys than by girls, who tended to consider them appropriate for both sexes. No differences appeared between ethnic groups in boys' responses to male and female adult occupations. In general Black girls tended to hold the most stereotypic views of job appropriateness, while Hispanic girls did not show a clear trend. Black boys tended to stereotype more than the other two groups with reference to child jobs on a boy-stereotype scale. Some differences also appeared in both boys' and girls' responses on the basis of a median split between high and low stereotypers on boy and girl child-job stereotype scales. In general, subjects who stereotyped child jobs tended also to stereotype adult occupations, suggesting a link between the child's current experience and the more remote world of adults. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Cross-sectional,longitudinal and composite longitudinal data on the Career Maturity Inventory Attitude Scale

Longitudinal data collection designs are frequently used in the study of developmental variables but typically yield patterns of results that are different from those obtained using cross-sectional designs. Recent research has focused on ways to clarify and reconcile the methodological distinctions between these two designs by utilizing alternative designs that incorporate features of both. This investigation compared the results obtained by the two traditional designs on the Career Maturity Inventory-Attitude Scale with the effects of an alternative design: constructing a composite longitudinal gradient. The two traditional methodologies yielded different results from each other for males, but not for females. However, the alternative design failed to eliminate the obtained differences for males, and introduced differences for females, casting doubt on the efficacy of the “solution.” The implications of these results for developmental research and career maturity were discussed.     

Synchronous and desynchronous changes during fear reduction.

The purpose of this experiment, carried out on 27 subjects with intense and circumscribed fears, was to test one main hypothesis and several subsidiary predictions. The prediction that a high-demand in vivo treatment condition produces desynchronous changes and a low-demand treatment condition synchronous changes, was supported by some inter-session findings but not by the intra-session findings. The clear linear relation between heart-rate and reported fear was confirmed, as was the rapid habituation of the heart-rate response to phobic stimulation.The fear-reactions and fear-reductions of psychiatric and non-psychiatric were indistinguishable. High heart-rate responders and low heart-rate responders showed similar patterns of improvement. The constrained laboratory ‘treatment’ procedure used in the experiment produced large and rapid reductions in fear.     

Cluster analysis in school psychology: An example

This investigation demonstrates the use of Ward's method of cluster analysis to uncover the underlying classification structure in a group of children (N = 200) referred for psychological evaluations by their public school teachers. Data were acquired on children's intellectual development, academic achievement, and social adjustment. The cluster solution identifies six groups of children which are statistically distinct. All three measurement areas are important in distinguishing among the different groups. The six-group solution accounted for appreciable amounts (95%) of the variability in the three measurement areas. Implications for psychologists working in the schools are discussed.     

Overhabituation and dishabituation: Effects of extraversion and amount of training

The Eysenck (1967) hypothesis that introverts have higher levels of cortical activation than extraverts has received support in a number of psychophysiological studies, though there is not complete consistency. The present study extended the habituation paradigm used in some previous work to include an examination of differences between extraverts and introverts during and following long-term overhabituation. Electrodermal activity was recorded while 72 extraverts and 72 introverts were subjected to criterion auditory habituation to a 1000-Hz, 90-db tone, followed by 60, 100, or 140 trials of overhabituation. The overhabituation run was followed by a test stimulus of 7000 Hz and a final repetition of the standard stimulus. Results showed that introverts increased in response frequency with increasing overhabituation exposure, while extraverts showed an increase only from 100 to 140 trials. In addition, the hypothesis that differences in test response amplitude favoring introverts would be eliminated by extended overhabituation training was supported. Specifically, extraverts showed increased responses at 100 and 140 trials, while introverts remained approximately constant across the three conditions. Finally, results supported the Sokolov hypothesis that overhabituation training produces test responses of larger amplitude.     

Dishabituation and spontaneous recovery of the electrodermal orienting response: Effects of extraversion,impulsivity, sociability,and caffeine

The relationship between extraversion and psychophysiological indices of arousal is not yet fully understood. The present study attempted to further clarify this relationship by using caffeine to systematically manipulate arousal. Subjects pretested on the Eysenck Personality Inventory were given caffeine or a placebo, then underwent habituation, dishabituation, and spontaneous recovery of the electrodermal OR. Separate analyses examined the main and interactive effects of extraversion, impulsivity, and sociability with caffeine. Several tonic and phasic measures showed group reversal effects, with introverts having higher tonic levels and larger phasic responses under placebo conditions and extraverts having larger phasic responses and higher tonic levels under caffeine. Although both tonic and phasic responses were differentially affected, the group reversal effects occurred at different points in time on tonic than they did on phasic measures relative to the theoretical buildup of inhibition. The findings for impulsivity were quite consistent with those for extraversion, and both sets of results were generally supportive of the Eysenck hypothesis.