父母-儿童共同活动中的互动与儿童的数学学习

本研究运用结构性观察方法对两组4岁儿童与父母在四种活动中的互动进行了分析与比较。一组儿童为书面数符号测查高分者,二组儿童为书面数符号测查低分者。85对父母一儿童对子参加了4个各有15分钟的共同活动,阅读、数学题、纸和积木,并完成一个微型问卷。结果表明,在这些活动中包含了多种数学知识学习和多种以父母为主导的互动策略;两组对子之间在数学事件频次上无差异,但一组父母更多地运用了一些积极策略,二组父母更多地运用了一些消极策略;二组中有更多儿童对互动表现出消极回应和注意力问题。两个组的父母在家中与儿童一起进行诸如阅读和做数学题的共同活动的频次与质量上表现出差异。     

Experimental control of nodality via equal presentations of conditional discriminations in different equivalence protocols under speed and no-speed conditions

A within-participant comparison of simple-to-complex, complex-to-simple, and simultaneous protocols was conducted establishing different sets of three 7-member equivalence classes for 4 undergraduate students. The protocols were implemented under either accuracy-only or accuracy-plus-speed conditions while keeping number of presentations of training and testing trials equal. The results partially support previous reports of differential effects on acquisition, with participants completing more blocks in training under the simultaneous than the complex-to-simple and the simple-to-complex protocols. Across the protocols, however, the number of trials completed to criterion did not vary systematically. More important, response speed and accuracy did not decrease as a function of nodal number, with or without the speed contingency, or under any protocol. The latter results challenge the generality of previous reports of the nodality effect and the notion of "relatedness" of equivalence-class members, and support a reinforcement-contingency, instead of a structural, perspective on equivalence-class formation.     

靶子的潜在位置数对辨别任务中返回抑制的影响

摘要在严格控制的条件下,以大学生为被试．采用线索一靶子模式的返回抑制范式．考察了靶子在注视点周边可能出现的位置数与辨别任务中返回抑制的关系。实验结果表明．在辨别任务中靶子的潜在位置数对返回抑制量有影响,随着位置数的增加,返回抑制量减小。该结论为返回抑制的注意性观点提供了新的证据。     

DIMENSIONS OF FRUSTRATION INTOLERANCE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO SELF-CONTROL PROBLEMS

Frustration intolerance beliefs are central to the theory and practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. However, there has been little investigation of the content of these beliefs, and empirical evidence linking specific beliefs to distinct psychological problems is sparse. To redress this, the Frustration–Discomfort Scale has been developed as a multidimensional measure. This was used to explore the relationship between the four dimensions of frustration intolerance (emotional intolerance, demands for entitlement, comfort, and achievement) and problems of self-control. Results indicated that the Frustration–Discomfort sub-scales showed differential relationships with self-control problems, independent of self-worth beliefs. This supported the validity and usefulness of the scale and the importance of distinguishing between dimensions of frustration intolerance. This paper is based on research submitted to the University of Edinburgh in part fulfillment of a Doctorate of Philosophy degree. Address correspondence to Neil Harrington, Psychology Department, Stratheden Hospital, Cupar, Fife, KY15 5RR, UK; e-mail: neil@nharr.freeserve.co.uk.     

Structure and strength in causal induction

We present a framework for the rational analysis of elemental causal induction-learning about the existence of a relationship between a single cause and effect-based upon causal graphical models. This framework makes precise the distinction between causal structure and causal strength: the difference between asking whether a causal relationship exists and asking how strong that causal relationship might be. We show that two leading rational models of elemental causal induction, DeltaP and causal power, both estimate causal strength, and we introduce a new rational model, causal support, that assesses causal structure. Causal support predicts several key phenomena of causal induction that cannot be accounted for by other rational models, which we explore through a series of experiments. These phenomena include the complex interaction between DeltaP and the base-rate probability of the effect in the absence of the cause, sample size effects, inferences from incomplete contingency tables, and causal learning from rates. Causal support also provides a better account of a number of existing datasets than either DeltaP or causal power.     

Language effects in magnitude comparison: small, but not irrelevant

It is assumed that number magnitude comparison is performed by assessing magnitude representation on a single analog mental number line. However, we have observed a unit-decade-compatibility effect in German which is inconsistent with this assumption (Nuerk, Weger, & Willmes, 2001). Incompatible magnitude comparisons in which decade and unit comparisons lead to different responses (e.g., 37_52 for which 3<5, but 7>2) are slower and less accurately responded to than compatible trials in which decade and unit comparisons lead to the same response (e.g., 42_57, for which 4<5 and 2<7). As overall distance was held constant, a single holistic magnitude representation could not account for this compatibility effect. However, because of the inversion property of the corresponding German two-digit number words ("einundzwanzig" ), the language-generality of the effect is questionable. We have therefore examined the compatibility effect with native English speakers. We were able to replicate the compatibility effect using Arabic notation. Thus, the compatibility effect is not language-specific. However, in cross-linguistic analyses language-specific modulations were observed not only for number words but also for Arabic numbers. The constraints imposed on current models by the verbal mediation of Arabic number comparison are discussed.     

The Influence of Activation Level on Belief Bias in Relational Reasoning

A novel explanation of belief bias in relational reasoning is presented based on the role of working memory and retrieval in deductive reasoning, and the influence of prior knowledge on this process. It is proposed that belief bias is caused by the believability of a conclusion in working memory which influences its activation level, determining its likelihood of retrieval and therefore its effect on the reasoning process. This theory explores two main influences of belief on the activation levels of these conclusions. First, believable conclusions have higher activation levels and so are more likely to be recalled during the evaluation of reasoning problems than unbelievable conclusions, and therefore, they have a greater influence on the reasoning process. Secondly, prior beliefs about the conclusion have a base level of activation and may be retrieved when logically irrelevant, influencing the evaluation of the problem. The theory of activation and memory is derived from the Atomic Components of Thought‐Rational (ACT‐R) cognitive architecture and so this account is formalized in an ACT‐R cognitive model. Two experiments were conducted to test predictions of this model. Experiment 1 tested strength of belief and Experiment 2 tested the impact of a concurrent working memory load. Both of these manipulations increased the main effect of belief overall and in particular raised belief‐based responding in indeterminately invalid problems. These effects support the idea that the activation level of conclusions formed during reasoning influences belief bias. This theory adds to current explanations of belief bias by providing a detailed specification of the role of working memory and how it is influenced by prior knowledge.     

Components representation of negative numbers: Evidence from auditory stimuli detection and number classification tasks

Past research suggested that negative numbers could be represented in terms of their components in the visual modality. The present study examined the processing of negative numbers in the auditory modality and whether it is affected by context. Experiment 1 employed a stimuli detection task where only negative numbers were presented binaurally. Experiment 2 employed the same task, but both positive and negative numbers were mixed as cues. A reverse attentional spatial–numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect for negative numbers was obtained in these two experiments. Experiment 3 employed a number classification task where only negative numbers were presented binaurally. Experiment 4 employed the same task, but both positive and negative numbers were mixed. A reverse SNARC effect for negative numbers was obtained in these two experiments. These findings suggest that negative numbers in the auditory modality are generated from the set of positive numbers, thus supporting a components representation.     

Objects,pictures and words. Effects of representational format on four-year-olds’ quantity knowledge / Objetos,imágenes y palabras. Efectos del formato representacional en el conocimiento de la cantidad a los cuatro años

Abstract

This study explores whether and how different external representations of quantity influence the performance of four-year-old children when constructing sets of a given cardinal number. Three representations of quantity were presented (objects, pictures and number words) in an adaptation of the ‘Give-a-number’ task, in sets that contained 2–6 items. The results show that the use of pictures facilitated children’s performance with quantities of three and four. These results are discussed by analysing the cognitive demands of representational formats, in terms of dual representation and iconicity, and according to the magnitude of the quantities involved.