Testosterone and domain-specific risk: Digit ratios (2D:4D and rel2) as predictors of recreational, financial, and social risk-taking behaviors

Prenatal testosterone has important effects on brain organization and future behavior. The second-to-fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D), a proxy of prenatal testosterone exposure, has been linked to a wide variety of sexually differentiated dispositions and behaviors. We examine the relationship between digit length ratios (2D:4D and rel2, the length of the second finger relative to the sum of the lengths of all four fingers) and risk-taking behaviors across five domains: financial, social, recreational, ethical, and health. In a sub-sample of male Caucasians (ethnically homogeneous), lower rel2 was predictive of greater financial, social, and recreational risk-taking, whereas lower 2D:4D was predictive of greater risk-taking in two domains (social and recreational). In the full male sub-sample (ethnically heterogeneous), the only significant correlation was a negative association between 2D:4D and financial risk. A composite measure of risk-taking across all five domains revealed that both rel2 and 2D:4D were negatively correlated with overall risk-taking in both male sub-samples. No significant correlations were found in the female sub-samples. Finally, men were more risk-seeking than women across all five contexts.     

Masculinised brain and romantic jealousy: Examining the association between digit ratio (2D:4D) and between- and within-sex differences

We examined the relationship between second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a correlate of prenatal testosterone exposure, and distress at sexual versus emotional infidelity in hypothetical scenarios of relationship threat. As predicted, a significant negative association was found between 2D:4D and greater distress at sexual infidelity for the whole sample (N = 179, females = 101). While this novel finding supports the view of romantic jealousy as a sexually-dimorphic adaptation, we explore reasons for the relatively weak association and discuss how underlying differences in brain structure could have influenced sex-specific behavioural capacities in romantic jealousy. We suggest a useful direction for future research will be to develop novel methods that facilitate the investigation of implicit emotional, rather than explicit cognitive, processes in response to pair-bond threat.     

Prenatal anxiety effects: A review

This review is based on literature on prenatal anxiety effects that was found on Pubmed and PsycINFO for the years 2010–2016. Prenatal anxiety is thought to have distinct features, although it has been measured both by specific prenatal anxiety symptoms as well as by standardized anxiety scales. Its prevalence has ranged from 21 to 25% and it has been predicted by a number of pregnancy – related variables such as unintended pregnancy, demographic variables such as low acculturation and income and psychosocial factors including pessimism and partner tension. Prenatal anxiety effects on pregnancy include increased cortisol levels, pro-inflammatory cytokines, obstetric problems and cesarean section. Effects on the neonate include lower gestational age, prematurity, less insulin-like growth factor in cord blood, less exclusive breast-feeding and less self-regulation during the heelstick procedure. Prenatal anxiety effects continue into infancy and childhood both on physiological development and emotional/mental development. Among the physiological effects are lower vagal activity across the first two years, and lower immunity, more illnesses and reduced gray matter in childhood. Prenatal anxiety effects on emotional/mental development include greater negative emotionality and in infants, lower mental development scores and internalizing problems. Anxiety disorders occur during childhood and elevated cortisol and internalizing behaviors occur during adolescence. Interventions for prenatal anxiety are virtually nonexistent, although stroking (massaging) the infant has moderated the pregnancy – specific anxiety effects on internalizing behaviors in the offspring. The limitations of this literature include the homogeneity of samples, the frequent use of anxiety measures that are not specific to pregnancy, and the reliance on self-report. Nonetheless, the literature highlights the negative, long-term effects of prenatal anxiety and the need for screening and early interventions.     

Power,testosterone, and risk‐taking

Power has been found to increase risk‐taking (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006 ) but this effect appears to be moderated by individual differences in power motivation (Maner, Gailliot, Butz, & Peruche, 2007 ). Among individuals high in power motivation, the experience of power leads to more conservative decisions. As testosterone is associated with the pursuit of power and status (Dabbs & Dabbs, 2000 ), we reasoned that high‐testosterone individuals primed with power might be similarly risk‐avoidant. Conversely, we hypothesized that high‐testosterone individuals primed with low power, would see risk‐taking as a vehicle for pursuing potential gains to their status and resources. We report findings from two experiments that are consistent with these predictions. In Experiment 1, higher testosterone males (as indicated by second–fourth digit ratio) showed greater risk‐taking when primed with low power. Experiment 2 replicated this effect and also showed that when primed with high power, higher testosterone males took fewer risks. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Digit ratio (2D:4D) and Cattell's personality traits

The ratio between second and fourth finger (2D:4D) is sexually dimorphic; it is lower in men than in women. Studies using broad personality domains yielded correlations of 2D:4D with neuroticism, extraversion or agreeableness, but the obtained results have been inconsistent. We correlated 2D:4D of 184 women and 101 men with their scores in Cattell's 16 Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire. We found women with a higher (more ‘feminine’) right hand 2D:4D to score lower in emotional stability and social boldness and higher in privateness. Mediator analysis showed emotional stability to be probably primarily correlated with 2D:4D and to act as a mediator between 2D:4D and social boldness. Privateness appears to be mediated by an even more complex path. We discuss the usefulness of primary‐level personality questionnaires and mediator analyses in the investigation of psycho‐morphological associations. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

心理学视野下的面孔宽长比研究

面孔宽长比（fWHR）是指面孔宽度与长度（或高度）之间的比值。它是一种反映男性青春期睾酮分泌水平高低的面部结构,并被视为男性气质的评价指标。多项研究表明,fWHR与攻击、支配、冒险、欺骗、追求个体成就等男性气质行为相关。本文对该领域研究成果进行了详细述评,并指出未来研究可在性别差异、影响机制、跨文化研究等方面加以探讨。     

Hormones and competitive aggression in women

This study used diaries of competitive interactions to explore the relationship between hormones and competitive aggression in women. Thirty women completed approximately 10 diary entries each. In each entry, the women described a recent competitive interaction they had engaged in and noted whether it was expressed aggressively or through other tactics. Each woman received a score for the fraction of her competitive interactions that were expressed using physical aggression, verbal aggression, nothing overt, and so on. Hormones (total testosterone, free testosterone, androstenedione, estradiol, and cortisol) were measured in serum early in the follicular phase. Results indicate that women with low levels of androstenedione and total testosterone were less likely to express their competitive feelings overtly, while women with high levels of androstenedione were more likely than other women to express their competitive feelings through verbal aggression. Estradiol was unrelated to competitive tactics, but women with high estradiol levels reported fewer competitive interactions over athletics than did other women. Aggr. Behav. 29:107–115, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Estimated Risk of Developing Selected DSM-IV Disorders Among 5-Year-Old Children with Prenatal Cocaine Exposure

We estimated childhood risk of developing selected DSM-IV Disorders, including Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), and Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD), in children with prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE). Children were enrolled prospectively at birth (n = 476) with prenatal drug exposures documented by maternal interview, urine and meconium assays. Study participants included 400 African-American children from the birth cohort, 208 cocaine-exposed (CE) and 192 non-cocaine-exposed (NCE), who attended a 5-year follow-up assessment and whose caregiver completed the Computerized Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children. Under a generalized linear model (logistic link), Fisher’s exact methods were used to estimate the PCE-associated relative risk (RR) of these disorders. Our results indicated a modest but statistically robust elevation of ADHD risk associated with increasing levels of PCE (p < 0.05). Binary comparison of CE versus NCE children indicated no PCE-associated RR. Estimated cumulative incidence proportions among CE children were 2.9% for ADHD (vs 3.1% NCE); 1.4% for SAD (vs 1.6% NCE); and 4.3% for ODD (vs 6.8% NCE). Our findings suggest evidence of increased risk of ADHD (but not ODD or SAD) in relation to an increasing gradient of PCE during gestation.     

Androgen dynamics in the context of children's peer relations: an examination of the links between testosterone and peer victimization

Testosterone levels have been shown to decrease in the face of social defeat in several mammalian species. Among humans, the loss of social status has been studied primarily in the context of athletic competition, with winners having higher testosterone levels than losers. This study examined testosterone levels in relation to peer victimization (bullying) in a sample of 151 boys and girls aged 12–13. Statistically controlling for age and pubertal status, results indicated that on average verbally bullied girls produced less testosterone and verbally bullied boys produced more testosterone than their nonbullied counterparts. Similar trends were evident comparing social and physical bullying with testosterone. Sex differences are discussed in terms of empirically validated differences in coping styles, as girls tend to internalize, whereas boys tend to externalize, their abuse. Aggr. Behav. 35:103–113, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Prenatal maternal depression predicts neural maturation and negative emotion in infants

Despite widespread acceptance that prenatal symptoms of depression in mothers are detrimental to infants’ long-term emotional and cognitive development, little is known about the mechanisms that may integrate outcomes across these domains. Rooted in the integrative perspective that emotional development is grounded in developing cognitive processes, we hypothesized that prenatal symptoms of depression in mothers would be associated with delays in neural maturation that support sociocognitive function in infants, leading to more problematic behaviors. We used a prospective longitudinal study of mothers (N = 92) and their infants to test whether self-reported symptoms of depression in mothers during the second and third trimesters were associated with neural development and infant outcomes at 4 months of age. While controlling for postpartum symptoms of depression, more prenatal symptoms of depression in mothers predicted less neural maturation in the parietal region of 4-month-old infants. Less neural maturation, in turn, was associated with greater infant negativity, suggesting neural maturation as a putative mechanism linking maternal symptoms of depression with infant outcomes. Differences in neural regions and developmental timing are also discussed.