Parenting stress and depressive symptoms in postpartum mothers: Bidirectional or unidirectional effects?

Despite the consistent link between parenting stress and postpartum depressive symptoms, few studies have explored the relationships longitudinally. The purpose of this study was to test bidirectional and unidirectional models of depressive symptoms and parenting stress. Uniquely, three specific domains of parenting stress were examined: parental distress, difficult child stress, and parent–child dysfunctional interaction (PCDI). One hundred and five women completed the Beck Depression Inventory and the Parenting Stress Index – Short Form at 3, 7, and 14 months after giving birth. Structural equation modeling revealed that total parenting stress predicted later depressive symptoms, however, there were different patterns between postpartum depressive symptoms and different types of parenting stress. A unidirectional model of parental distress predicting depressive symptoms best fit the data, with significant stability paths but non-significant cross-lagged paths. A unidirectional model of depressive symptoms predicted significant later difficult child stress. No model fit well with PCDI. Future research should continue to explore the specific nature of the associations of postpartum depression and different types of parenting stress on infant development and the infant–mother relationship.     

Chapter 12. What I Have Learned

SUMMARY

In this chapter I revisit the goals of TANF in light of the findings of this research study and present recommendations for policy change.     

Parental influences on self-regulation and achievement in children with adolescent mothers

The predictors of academic achievement and self-regulation in 95 high-risk children studied from birth were investigated during the second grade. Parenting, early maternal adjustment, child adjustment and temperament were hypothesized to predict the emergence of self-regulation. Although parenting, maternal adjustment, and child adjustment were related to achievement and classroom adjustment, they were not related to children's self-regulation, which was the strongest predictor of teacher ratings of academic performance, standardized achievement in math and reading, and classroom adjustment.     

New Beginnings–an experience-based programme addressing the attachment relationship between mothers and their babies in prisons

Data about the quality of attachment between infants and parents in high-risk populations suggests that early intervention may be advantageous for positive developmental outcomes for the child. Mothers in prison represent a high-risk parenting population in terms of both attachment histories and economic and social risk factors. New Beginnings was constructed as a short term, experience-based programme for mothers and infants in the Mother and Baby Units of two UK women's prisons. It is based on the early intervention model developed at the Anna Freud Centre. The programme was piloted in 2004–5, with 27 participating dyads. This paper presents an overview of the pilot stage. Our aim is to introduce the thinking that went into the programme and to present initial observations concerning the effect of the programme. We describe the development of a framework for the programme and its preliminary evaluation using pre- and post-interview protocols concerning the mothers' thoughts and feelings about their babies. We used the Parent Development Interview, for both a qualitative analysis of the major themes in connection to child rearing and quantitative measures of reflective capacity in relation to the child on the part of mother-participants.     

Type a behavior pattern in mothers of infants: An exploration of associations with attachment,sensitive caregiving,and life-events

Abstract

In the present study. 83 lower- to upper-middle class mothers of first-born, 12-month-old infants were interviewed with the Adult Attachment Interview (George, Kaplan, and Main, 1985), and completed the Groninger Intelligence Test (Luteijn and Van der Ploeg, 1982). Eighteen months after the beginning of the study, 67 mothers (81% of the original sample) were interviewed with the Structured Interview (Rosenman, 1978), and were observed during a brief, semi-structured play session at home with their child - at that time a 2.5-years-old toddler. They also completed a checklist about major life-events that had occurred during the past 18 months. A large majority of these mothers of young children (81%) showed Type A behavior patterns. The job of parenting, indeed, appears to be stressful. Attachment and Type A behaviors, however, did not seem to be related, probably because the influence of attachment is restricted to the regulation of emotions in intimate relationships. Yet, Type A behavior predicted a more sensitive parenting style than Type B did. All mothers who experienced negative life-events or Serious health problems in the recent past showed Type A behavior patterns. Our findings show that the Structured Interview can be applied in a valid manner to mothers of young children passing trough a demanding phase in their lives. Further research is needed to uncover the causes of the high prevalence of Type A behaviors in young mothers.     

Safe Sex Education for Adolescent Daughters: vhaVenda Mothers Views

The study explored vhaVenda mothers' perceptions of imparting safe sex education to their adolescent daughters. Data was collected through six focus group discussions with each group consisting of six to eight mothers. The results indicated that mothers want their children to be knowledgeable about sexuality to avoid consequences associated with negative sexual behaviour. The mothers were of the vew that children ought to receive sexuality education from parents. Nonethless, relatively few parents appear to be eager to discuss sexuality in great depth.     

First-time mothers’ experiences of meaningfulness during their third trimester of pregnancy: A focus on spirituality

This study sought to gain in-depth understanding of the lived experiences of first-time mothers during their third trimester of pregnancy. The non-probability, purposive sample were Afrikaans speaking first-time mothers aged between 22 and 40 years. Data on their experiences of meaningfulness during their pregnancy were collected using the Mmogo-Method® and reflective journals. The data were thematically analyzed combining textual data and visual depictions. This group of first-time mothers expressed a very personal relationship with a Divine reality that they rely on and derive meaningfulness from their pregnancy and birthing experiences. They perceived a Divine reality as the giver of life and that they were given a responsibility to carry new life. Sense of meaningfulness during pregnancy was strongly associated with spirituality.     

Myths and Mates in Childbearing Depression

Abstract

Many myths exist about postpartum depression (PPD), all of which are based on the assumption that PPD differs qualitatively from depression that occurs at other times in women's lives. These myths paint a misleading picture of how PPD arises and may prevent women from receiving treatment for their difficulties. In this article, I identify five common myths and review the research literature to demonstrate that each lacks an empirical basis. Next, I present a model based on attachment theory, which I use to conceptualize PPD that occurs in the context of relationship distress. Finally, I illustrate this model with a clinical case.     

The Impact of Physical Maltreatment History on the Adolescent Mother–Infant Relationship: Mediating and Moderating Effects During the Transition to Early Parenthood

Using attachment theory as a framework, this paper examines how pregnant adolescents' experiences of physical maltreatment during childhood influence the subsequent mother-infant relationship in 203 low-income adolescents followed from the 3rd trimester of pregnancy through the 1st year of parenthood. The relation between physical maltreatment history and early difficulty in the mother-infant relationship was mediated by adolescents' evaluations of the relationship with their primary caretaker and the feelings they associated with motherhood measured prior to childbirth. In addition, a supportive romantic relationship during pregnancy acted as a protective factor by moderating the impact of maltreatment history on the quality of the subsequent mother-infant relationship. Findings support the importance of assessments and interventions that consider the social context and relational history of pregnant and parenting adolescents.