The View from Inside the System: How Police Explain Their Response to Sexual Assault

Prior research has documented the problematic community response to sexual assault: the majority of sexual assaults reported to police are never prosecuted. Social dominance theory suggests that this response is a form of institutional discrimination, intended to maintain existing social structures, and that police personnel likely draw upon shared ideologies to justify their decision‐making in sexual assault case investigations. This study drew upon social dominance theory to examine how police justified their investigatory decisions to identify potential leverage points for change. The study revealed that the likelihood of a case referral to the prosecutor increased with each additional investigative step completed; of the different types of justifications provided by police for a less‐than‐thorough investigative response and stalled case, blaming the victim for the poor police investigation proved to be the most damaging to case progression; and the type of explanation provided by police was impacted by specific case variables. As suggested by social dominance theory, the study demonstrates that police rely on several different mechanisms to justify their response to sexual assault; implementing criminal justice system policies that target and interrupt these mechanisms has the potential to improve this response, regardless of specific case factors.     

The influence of the human TMJ eminence inclination on predicted masticatory muscle forces

Aim of this paper was to investigate the change in masticatory muscle forces and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) reaction forces simulated by inverse dynamics when the steepness of the anterior fossa slope was varied. We used the model by de Zee et al. (2007) created in AnyBody™. The model was equipped with 24 musculotendon actuators. Mandibular movement was governed by the trajectory of the incisal point. The TMJ was modelled as a planar constraint canted 5° medially and the caudal inclination relative to the occlusal plane was varied from 10° to 70°. Our models showed that for the two simulated movements (empty chewing and unilateral clenching) the joint reaction forces were smallest for the eminence inclination of 30° and 40° and highest for 70°. The muscle forces were relatively insensitive to change of the eminence inclination for the angles between 20° and 50°. This did not hold for the pterygoid muscle, for which the muscle forces increased continually with increasing fossa inclination. For empty chewing the muscle force reached smaller values than for clenching. During clenching, the muscle forces changed by up to 200 N.     

The role of response force on the persistence and structure of behavior during extinction

Behavior Momentum Theory has emerged as a prominent account of resistance to change in both basic and applied research. Although laboratory studies often define precise, repeatable responses, application research often deals with response classes that may vary widely along a number of dimensions. In general, Behavior Momentum Theory has not addressed how response dimensions impact resistance to change, providing an opportunity to expand the model in new directions. Four rats pressed a force transducer under a multiple variable interval (VI) 60‐s VI 60‐s schedule of reinforcement. In one component, responses satisfied the schedule only if the response force fell within a “low” force band requirement; responses in the other schedule were required to satisfy a “high” force band. Once responding stabilized, extinction was programmed for three sessions. Then, the procedures were replicated. The results showed that response force came under discriminative control, but force requirements had no impact on resistance to extinction. In a follow‐up condition, the schedule was changed to a multiple VI 30‐s VI 120‐s schedule and the low‐force band operated in both components. The results showed that behavior maintained by the VI 30‐s schedule was generally more resistant to extinction. A secondary analysis showed that force distributions created under baseline maintained during extinction. Overall, the results suggest that differential response force requirements prevailing in steady state do not affect the course of extinction.     

规范伦理学之本体论质疑——海德格尔存在主义的视角

上世纪 6 0年代规范伦理学的复归是伦理学理论的一个发展 ,从存在主义的角度看 ,规范伦理学必然会碰到这样一些理论困境 :道德规范的根源如何确认 ?道德规范的确证是否可能 ?道德规范的约束力如何保证 ?道德规范如何适用于人之外的世界 ?     

Force and Timing Variability in Rhythmic Unimanual Tapping

In 3 experiments the interdependencies between timing and force production in unimanual paced and self-paced rhythmic tapping tasks were examined as participants (N = 6 in each experiment) tapped (a) to 1 of 3 target periods (333 ms, 500 ms, and 1,000 ms), while they simultaneously produced a constant peak force (PF) over a 50-s trial; (b) to produce 1 of 3 target forces (5, 10, and 15 N) at their preferred frequency, while keeping their rhythm as invariant as possible; and (c) to all combinations of target force and period. The results showed that (a) magnitudes of force and period were largely independent; (b) variability in timing increased proportionally with tapping period, and the variability in force increased with peak force; (c) force variability decreased at faster tapping rates; and (d) timing variability decreased with increasing force levels, (e) Analysis of tap-to-tap variability revealed adjustments over sequences of taps and an acceleration in the tapping rate in unpaced conditions. The interdependencies of force and time are discussed with respect to the challenges they provide for an oscillator-based account.     

Simulating the Impact During Human Jumping by Means of a 4-Degrees-of-Freedom Model With Time-Dependent Properties

The authors simulated the vertical movements of a jumper and the force time courses by means of a 4-degrees-of-freedom model consisting of 4 masses, springs, and dampers. Of the motions simulated, only that of the mass imitating the trunk corresponded to the measured data. The best fit to the measured force curves were obtained in the simulation in which time-dependent model parameters were used. From the results, the authors concluded that at the beginning of the landing, a jumper behaves like a 2-mass model in which the leg segments (thighs, shanks, and feet) effectively combine into 1 mass. After approximately 60 ms, the connections between the leg segments become more compliant and the jumper behaves like a 4-mass model with a soft coupling between the leg segments. The process is equivalent to an increase of the degrees of freedom of the movements. At the end of the ground contact phase during hopping, the jumper has to contract the muscles in order to reach the envisaged jump height. In the model, that contraction could not be satisfactorily simulated.     

Effects of Training on Endurance in Hanging by The Hands

The effect of training on endurance in hanging by the hands from a horizontal bar was examined by timing the duration of such hanging in six male and five female subjects each weekday for 2 weeks. A significant increase in endurance was observed. The results, both subjective and objective, indicated the most important factors in the training to be increased psychological endurance of discomfort and increased muscular strength and efficiency.     

Noninvasive Brain Stimulation over the M1 Enhances Bimanual Force Control Ability: A Randomized Double-Blind Sham-Controlled Study

Well-coordinated bimanual force control is common in daily life. We investigated the effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the primary motor cortex on bimanual force control. Under a cross-over study, young adults (n = 19; female = 6, male = 13) completed three bimanual force control tasks at 5%, 25%, and 50% of bimanual maximum voluntary force (BMVF) before and after real or sham tDCS. Real tDCS enhanced accuracy at all BMVF, reduced variability at 5% BMVF, and increased coordination at 5% BMVF. Real tDCS improved force control at 5% and 25% BMVF, and especially increased bimanual coordination at 5% BMVF. These findings might have implications for establishing interventions for patients with hand force control deficits.     

Applications of the Speed–Accuracy Trade-off and Impulse-Variability Theory for Teaching Ballistic Motor Skills

Bridging the gap between innovative research and teaching is a fundamental necessity for physical education practitioners to promote motor skill development and competency. This requires practitioners to understand, synthesize, and appropriately apply relevant research from different academic domains in their instructional environments. Ballistic motor skills such as kicking, throwing, and striking are fundamentally integrated into many games and sports and provide a foundation for physical activity and fitness for children and adults. Unfortunately, many individuals do not attain a high level of competence in these types of skills by adolescence. The purpose of this review is to integrate theory, pedagogical best practices, and current evidence on studies relating to Fitts’ Law’s application of the speed–accuracy trade-off and impulse-variability theory to provide an evidence-based framework for promoting effective instructional environments for learning ballistic motor skills.