Psychology of Religion: What One Needs to Know

This essay is an introduction to systematic nonsectarian psychology of religion—its nature and scope, and its history. Among major issues, the study of motivation for being religious and stages of religious development are discussed, as well as counseling and psychotherapy. I summarize current trends.     

The nature of sexual reinforcement.

Sexual reinforcers are not part of a regulatory system involved in the maintenance of critical metabolic processes, they differ for males and females, they differ as a function of species and mating system, and they show ontogenetic and seasonal changes related to endocrine conditions. Exposure to a member of the opposite sex without copulation can be sufficient for sexual reinforcement. However, copulatory access is a stronger reinforcer, and copulatory opportunity can serve to enhance the reinforcing efficacy of stimulus features of a sexual partner. Conversely, under certain conditions, noncopulatory exposure serves to decrease reinforcer efficacy. Many common learning phenomena such as acquisition, extinction, discrimination learning, second-order conditioning, and latent inhibition have been demonstrated in sexual conditioning. These observations extend the generality of findings obtained with more conventional reinforcers, but the mechanisms of these effects and their gender and species specificity remain to be explored.     

情绪的早期哲学思想

本文对西方心理学史上一些重要的哲学思想就情绪的本质、情绪与认识的关系以及情绪与动机的关系等基本问题进行一定的分析和论述,为进一步认识和理解西方情绪心理学提供一定的历史背景。     

The development of optimism and perceived attainment from elementary school to junior high school

Optimism (a perception of future improvement of children's own achievement levels) and perceived present attainment were examined developmentally in relation to academic achievement and motivation. Subjects were 507 Japanese third-, fifth-, and seventh-grade children. After categorization as high or low on perceived attainment (H/L) and optimism (h/l), two (Hh, Ll), three (Hh, Lh, Ll), and four (Hh, Hl, Lh, Ll) groups were obtained in the third, fifth, and seventh grades, respectively. These groups showed characteristic features in terms of motivation- and achievement-related measures. Both optimism and perceived attainment explained the differences in scores on the measures between the two third-grade groups. In grades 5 and 7 perceived attainment was the primary factor explaining the group differences, while the optimism dimension was a secondary factor, whose influence was stronger in grade 7. The results are discussed in relation to the development of self-perceptions, as well as changes in learning environment between elementary school and junior high school.     

Volunteer Participation in Context: Motivations and Political Efficacy Within Three AIDS Organizations

Employed quantitative and qualitative data in a contextual examination of participation in three San Francisco-area HIV/AIDS organizations: an urban, gay community-based social change setting; an urban, broadly focused information/referral setting; and a suburban individual support setting. The settings attracted different kinds of volunteers and engaged them differently with the setting, each other, and community. In quantitative analyses external political efficacy (belief in the responsiveness of sociopolitical systems to change efforts) significantly distinguished settings, but was best predicted by setting-moderated relationships to scaled motivations. Qualitative data more clearly illuminated volunteers' motivations for participation, as well as complex, embedded relationships between setting, motivations, attitudes about sociopolitical participation, and personal and community experience and identification. Together the findings underscore three unique but related stories for the three AIDS organizations, and the value of contextual approaches to participation and empowerment.     

Beyond Altruism: Identity-Construction as Moral Motive in Political Explanation

This article explores conceptual issues pertaining to the role of moral motivation in political explanation. Employing data drawn from long interview with political activists from across the spectrum of American politics, I criticize both rational actor models and so-called "dual" motivational theories, that focus on altruism as the primary moral motive in politics, in contrast to the narrow focus on a certain conception of self-interest. Against both of these approaches, I offer an identity-construction approach to moral motives in politics. This model focuses on the complex interweaving of self and moral motives, and in particular focuses on the concerns political activists have for what kind of person they are and what kind of life they are living. These types of concerns are both moral and self-regarding, and therefore defy the dichotomy between self- and other-regarding at the heart of both rational actor and "dual" motivation accounts of moral motives.     

Character Attacks and Their Effects on Perceptions of Male and Female Political Candidates

The study examined the perceptions of political candidates (male and female) who make negative statements about the personality and integrity of their political opponents. Male and female participants (Sex of Participant factor) indicated their impressions of a male or female political candidate (Sex of Candidate factor) who either attacked or did not attack the character of his/her opponent (Attack factor) in a political leadership debate. Participants who read a speech given by a candidate of their own gender tended to rate the candidate as having greater integrity when the candidate attacked his/her opponent than when he/she did not. When judging a candidate of the opposite gender, participants tended to rate the candidate who attacked his/her opponent as having less integrity than a candidate who did not attack his/her opponent. Results are discussed with regard to the impact that aggressive campaign tactics can have on voter perceptions, and how similarity between voters and candidates may affect perceptions of such tactics.     

Postconcussion Symptoms

Research pertaining to the self-report of symptoms after traumatic brain injury was reviewed. Cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors have more relevance than demographic (except for female sex) and personality factors. Specific neuropsychological deficits in attention and memory have been found in the early stages after head injury of even mild severity. This is unlikely to be the only factor affecting symptom persistence. Exaggeration of cognitive dysfunction occurs in some cases, but appears unrelated to symptom overreport. Increased emotional distress typically accompanies symptom persistence. The psychological reaction of preoccupation with symptoms and emotional distress is not unique to concussion, but also occurs after severe head injury and back injury and relates more to the personal interpretation of the effect of the trauma than to objective indicators of brain injury severity.     

初中生在方程学习中学习能力感,学习策略与学业成就关系的研究

探讨了初中生在代数方程学习中,代数能力感与方程能力感两类学习能力感、计划性策略、努力策略与认知策略三类一般学习策略、适宜性策略和多样性策略两类方程具体策略与学业成就之间的关系。研究结果表明,方程成绩优秀生和不良生在学习能力感和学习策略上存在着显著的差异,两类具体策略和两类能力感对方程成绩具有显著的影响。     

The Impact of Performance-Contingent Rewards on Perceived Autonomy and Competence

Two studies examined the impact of performance-contingent rewards on perceived autonomy, competence, and intrinsic motivation. Autonomy was measured in terms of both decisional and affective reports. The first study revealed an undermining effect of performance-contingent rewards on affective reports of autonomy among university students, and an increase in reports of competence. Decisional autonomy judgements were unaffected by rewards. The second study replicated this pattern of findings among elementary school children. These results help resolve Cognitive Evaluation Theory's (E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 1985; R. M. Ryan, V. Mims, & R. Koestner, 1983) and Eisenberger, Rhoades, et al.'s (R. Eisenberger, L. Rhoades, & J. Cameron, 1999) divergent positions on the impact of performance-contingent rewards on autonomy. The studies also included measures of intrinsic motivation.