Multi-attribute sequential search

This article describes empirical and theoretical results from two multi-attribute sequential search tasks. In both tasks, the DM sequentially encounters options described by two attributes and must pay to learn the values of the attributes. In the continuous version of the task the DM learns the precise numerical value of an attribute when she pays to view it. In the threshold version the DM learns only whether the value of an attribute is above or below a threshold that she sets herself. Results from the continuous condition reveal that DMs tended to terminate their searches too early relative to the optimal policy. The pattern reversed in the threshold condition: DMs searched for too long. Maximum likelihood comparisons of two different stochastic decision models showed that DMs under both information conditions performed in ways consistent with the optimal policies. Those offered continuous-valued attribute information did not, however, spontaneously degrade this information into binary (acceptable/unacceptable) form, despite the theoretical finding that satisficing can be a very effective and efficient search strategy.     

Evidence for an explanation advantage in naïve biological reasoning

The present studies compare young children’s explanations and predictions for the biological phenomenon of contamination. In Study 1, 36 preschoolers and 24 adults heard vignettes concerning contamination, and were asked either to make a prediction or to provide an explanation. Even 3-year-olds readily supplied contamination-based explanations, and most children mentioned an unseen mechanism (germs, contact through bodily fluids). Moreover, unlike adults who performed at ceiling across both explanation and prediction tasks, children were significantly more accurate with their explanations than their predictions. In Study 2, we varied the strength of cues regarding the desirability of the contaminated substance (N = 24 preschoolers). Although desirability affected responses, for both levels of desirability participants were significantly more accurate on explanation than prediction questions. Altogether, these studies demonstrate a significant “explanation advantage” for children’s reasoning in the domain of everyday biology.     

On Revolutionizing the Theory and Practice of Psychotherapy

The original concepts psychological hurt and therapeutic catharsis are proposed as the basis for a revolutionary change in the theory and practice of psychotherapy. Psychological hurt, understood as any residual interference with psychological functioning from an adverse event(s), is proposed as the irreducible cause of any such difficulty. Therapeutic catharsis is proposed as the optimal healing process for psychological hurt. Such a transformational view of the theory and practice of psychotherapy is deemed as necessary because of the lack of unequivocal answers to the following fundamental questions: What causes psychological problems? What resolves them in the most optimal way?     

Observing evidence accumulation during multi-alternative decisions

Most decision-making research has focused on choices between two alternatives. For choices between many alternatives, the primary result is Hick’s Law—that mean response time increases logarithmically with the number of alternatives. Various models for this result exist within specific paradigms, and there are some more general theoretical results, but none of those have been tested stringently against data. We present an experimental paradigm that supports detailed examination of multi-choice data, and analyze predictions from a Bayesian ideal observer model for this paradigm. Data from the experiment deviate from the predictions of the Bayesian model in interesting ways. A simple heuristic model based on evidence accumulation provides a good account for the data, and has attractive properties as a limit case of the Bayesian model.     

Performance predictions affect attentional processes of event-based prospective memory

To investigate whether making performance predictions affects prospective memory (PM) processing, we asked one group of participants to predict their performance in a PM task embedded in an ongoing task and compared their performance with a control group that made no predictions. A third group gave not only PM predictions but also ongoing-task predictions. Exclusive PM predictions resulted in slower ongoing-task responding both in a nonfocal (Experiment 1) and in a focal (Experiment 2) PM task. Only in the nonfocal task was the additional slowing accompanied by improved PM performance. Even in the nonfocal task, however, was the correlation between ongoing-task speed and PM performance reduced after predictions, suggesting that the slowing was not completely functional for PM. Prediction-induced changes could be avoided by asking participants to additionally predict their performance in the ongoing task. In sum, the present findings substantiate a role of metamemory for attention-allocation strategies of PM.     

A tutorial on adaptive design optimization

Experimentation is ubiquitous in the field of psychology and fundamental to the advancement of its science, and one of the biggest challenges for researchers is designing experiments that can conclusively discriminate the theoretical hypotheses or models under investigation. The recognition of this challenge has led to the development of sophisticated statistical methods that aid in the design of experiments and that are within the reach of everyday experimental scientists. This tutorial paper introduces the reader to an implementable experimentation methodology, dubbed Adaptive Design Optimization, that can help scientists to conduct “smart” experiments that are maximally informative and highly efficient, which in turn should accelerate scientific discovery in psychology and beyond.     

Children’s sequential information search is sensitive to environmental probabilities

We investigated 4th-grade children’s search strategies on sequential search tasks in which the goal is to identify an unknown target object by asking yes–no questions about its features. We used exhaustive search to identify the most efficient question strategies and evaluated the usefulness of children’s questions accordingly. Results show that children have good intuitions regarding questions’ usefulness and search adaptively, relative to the statistical structure of the task environment. Search was especially efficient in a task environment that was representative of real-world experiences. This suggests that children may use their knowledge of real-world environmental statistics to guide their search behavior. We also compared different related search tasks. We found positive transfer effects from first doing a number search task on a later person search task.     

Optimal psychological states in advanced climbers: Antecedents,characteristics, and consequences of flow and clutch states

ObjectivesOptimal psychological states (e.g., flow) are particularly valued by rock-climbers. The integrated model of flow and clutch states has shown promise for better understanding optimal states in sport psychology. The current study examined the antecedents, characteristics, and consequences of these states among rock-climbers in relation to the integrated model. A secondary objective was to compare optimal psychological states across outdoor and indoor rock-climbing contexts.DesignA sequential-explanatory (QUAN → qual) design was used.MethodNine male and four female advanced rock-climbers completed a flow questionnaire immediately after every climbing route during two separate climbing sessions (i.e., one outdoor, one indoor). Intensity sampling was used to identify participants for 13 semi-structured interviews, based on high- or low-score thresholds established by the research team. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis and abductive reasoning.ResultsParticipants reported an optimal state during at least one of their climbs in 72% of their outdoor sessions and 40% of their indoor sessions. A focus on exploring routes was reported as preceding flow states, which were characterised by enjoyment of effortless movement for its own sake. In contrast, specific goals and additional risk-based pressure were reported as preceding clutch states, which were described as exerting maximal effort. After experiencing flow, participants reported additional vitality. Following clutch states, participants reported feeling accomplished, despite reporting exhaustion.ConclusionsThis study suggests potential antecedents, characteristics, and consequences of two distinct, yet overlapping, optimal states that appear to occur during both indoor and outdoor climbing. Findings extend understanding of the integrated flow and clutch state model beyond traditional sport and exercise contexts and demonstrates the utility of the model for adventure recreation. Recommendations for future research include testing, refining, and expanding the integrated model of flow and clutch.     

Exploring the interactions underlying flow states: A connecting analysis of flow occurrence in European Tour golfers

ObjectivesResearch to date has identified a range of factors suggested to facilitate flow states in sport. However, less attention has focused on how exactly those facilitating factors influence the occurrence of flow. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the specific ways in which such facilitators influenced flow occurrence in European Tour golfers.DesignQualitative design.MethodTen full-time golfers from the European Tour (M age = 37; SD = 13.08) participated in semi-structured interviews investigating the occurrence of their flow states. Data were interpreted using an iterative process of thematic and connecting analyses.ResultsTen facilitators of flow were identified, of which commitment and the caddie have not been reported previously. Twenty four connecting links were identified in the data, through which the caddie, effective preparation, and high-quality performance appeared to be most influential for flow occurrence. Confidence and concentration also emerged as key constructs underlying the flow experience in this setting.ConclusionA central contribution of this study is the identification of ways in which facilitating factors could influence flow occurrence in elite golf. This process adds detail to understanding of flow occurrence, and moves beyond simply identifying factors which are associated with the experience. As such, connecting analysis is proposed as an additional strategy for qualitatively investigating flow occurrence in sport. Results are discussed in relation to previous literature, and recommendations are identified for researchers, athletes, coaches and practitioners.