Pavlov And Skinner: Two Lives In Science (An Introduction To B. F. Skinner's "Some Responses To The Stimulus 'Pavlov' ")

The sesquicentennial of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov's birth in September 1999 is being celebrated in Russia by a special issue of the Russian Journal of Physiology (the former I. M. Sechenov Physiological Journal, founded by Pavlov in 1917). The following article and the address by Skinner that it introduces are scheduled to appear in Russian translation in that special issue. Skinner's “Some Responses to the Stimulus ‘Pavlov’” was his presidential address to the Pavlovian Society of North America in 1966. The following article provides the context for Skinner's address by describing some ways in which Pavlov's research influenced Skinner's contributions.     

Olfactory context and memory retrieval in 3-month-old infants

Three experiments examineed whether olfactory stimuli can produce context-dependent effects in infant memory. In eash, 3-month-old infants learned to kick to control the movement of an overhead modile in the presence of an ambient odor. Retention was assessed 1, 3, or 5 days later. During the retention test, the olfactory context was either the same odor, a different odor, or “no odor.” At 1 day, infants exhibited retention when tested in the presence of the same odor. Infants in the no odor condition exhibited partial retention, whereas memory retrieval was completely disrupted for infants tested in the presence of the different odor. After the 3- and 5-day intervals, all groups showed forgetting. These results were not consistent with recent studies of 3-month-old infants trained and tested in the presence of a distinctive visual and auditory context. The findings suggest that olfactory stimuli are a silent feature of the environment for 3-month-old infants, but that they function as context cues in a way that differs from other sensory modalities.     

Brain asymmetry and autonomic conditioning: Sensitization control

In the present experiment we report effects of cerebral asymmetry, or laterality, during classical conditioning to facial emotional stimuli. Twenty-five female subjects were presented with slides of a happy face in one visual half-field (VHF), and simultaneously a slide of an angry face in the other VHF, followed by shock as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). To control for effects of sensitization, a new stimulus, never associated with the UCS, was introduced in the extinction phase. Dependent measures were phasic heart rate responses (HR) and skin conductance responses (SCR). The HR results showed a significant right hemisphere effect for the CS-UCS association, that was not attributable to UCS sensitization. No significant effects were found for the SCRs. The basic HR finding was a right hemisphere superiority for learning of a conditioned association.     

MODIFICATION OF ACTIVITY LEVEL THROUGH BIOFEEDBACK AND OPERANT CONDITIONING1

The biomotometer, an electronic device that simultaneously measures activity and provides auditory feedback to the subject, was used in combination with material reinforcers in two experiments attempting to modify activity level in children. In the first study the activity level of an 11-year-old highly active boy was decreased below mean baseline during conditioning in a classroom setting. His level of activity returned to baseline when feedback was withdrawn. In the second study, activity level of a 10-year-old hypoactive boy was increased over mean baseline level during conditioning in a free-play setting, and returned to slightly below baseline during five extinction trials. Results of these studies indicate that the biomotometer is a useful instrument for modification of activity level.     

ACQUISITION,DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS CONTROL,AND RETENTION OF INCREASES/DECREASES IN BLOOD PRESSURE OF NORMOTENSIVE HUMAN SUBJECTS1

The aims of this study of 24 normotensive subjects were: to compare a free-operant with a discrete-trials training format; to determine the most effective training procedure by comparing instrumental conditioning with instructional set and a control; to see if both increases and decreases in blood pressure could be brought under discriminative control, and to examine the maintenance of acquired self-control of blood pressure. A 2 × 3 design was employed in which two trial formats (free operant and discrete trials) were factorially compared with three training conditions (instrumental conditioning, instructional set, and control). Instrumental conditioning was found superior to both the instructional set and control conditions in producing increases and decreases in mean diastolic blood pressure. The free-operant format led to a greater degree of learned BP control in that subjects were able to increase and decrease their blood pressure by 10% to 15% of basal value and to maintain the blood-pressure operant after contingent auditory feedback/reinforcement was removed. Training was discontinued when subjects in the other five groups failed to reach criterion after 10 consecutive acquisition sessions.     

Low-response-rate conditioning history and fixed-interval responding in rats.

Bar presses by one group of rats were conditioned under a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate reinforcement schedule immediately prior to conditioning under a fixed-interval schedule. In a second group of rats, bar presses were conditioned first under a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule and then under a fixed-ratio schedule prior to conditioning under a fixed-interval schedule. Low response rates occurred under the fixed-interval schedule only when it was immediately preceded by low-rate conditioning. Otherwise, fixed-interval responding was similar to responding under the fixed-ratio schedule. This finding suggests that responses of laboratory animals are sensitive to immediate history, and, unlike human responses, are relatively insensitive to a history of low-rate conditioning when it is followed by high-rate conditioning.     

SELECTIVE ASSOCIATIONS PRODUCED SOLELY WITH APPETITIVE CONTINGENCIES: THE STIMULUS-REINFORCER INTERACTION REVISITED

In studies reporting stimulus-reinforcer interactions in traditional conditioning paradigms, when a tone-light compound was associated with food the light gained stimulus control, but when the compound was paired with shock avoidance the tone gained control. However, the physical nature of the reinforcerrelated events (food vs. shock) presented in the presence of the tone-light compound was always confounded with the conditioned hedonic value of the compound's presence relative to its absence. When the compound was paired with shock, its presence was negative relative to its absence (which was shock-free). In contrast, when the compound was paired with food, its presence was positive relative to its absence (which was food-free). The present experiment dealt with this confounding effect by conditioning a tone-light compound to be positive or negative, relative to its absence, solely with food reinforcement. One group of rats received food for responding in the presence of the tone-light compound and no food in its absence. The other group also responded in the presence of the compound, but received food only in its absence. These rats were trained on a chained schedule in which responding in the presence of the tone-light compound produced a terminal link signaled by the absence of the compound; responding ceased in the terminal link because it delayed food delivery. In a test session to assess stimulus control by the elements of the compound, tone and light were presented separately under extinction conditions. Rats that had been exposed to a positive correlation between food and the compound emitted almost double the responses in the presence of the light as in the presence of the tone. In comparison, rats that had been exposed to a negative correlation emitted only two thirds as many responses in the presence of the light as in the presence of the tone. Because this selective association was produced using only food, it appears that the contingencies under which a reinforcer is presented, rather than (or as well as) its physical properties, can generate the selective associations previously attributed to “stimulus-reinforcer interactions.” This could mean that regardless of the class of reinforcer that ultimately maintains responding (appetitive or aversive), the contingency-generated hedonic value of the compound stimulus may influence the dominant modality of stimulus control.     

Two-component arterial blood pressure conditional response in rat

The objective of these experiments was to quantify the pattern of change in arterial blood pressure (BP) during a discriminative aversive classical conditioning paradigm in rat using a new “high resolution” computer analysis. Sprague-Dawley rats (n=5) were restrained in a soft, conical cloth pouch and conditioned using a 6 sec. pulsed tone (CS+) followed by a 0.5 sec. tail shock; a steady tone, never followed by shock, served as a CS-. BP peaked at 16.4±6.5 mm Hg (mean±SD) above control at 1.5±0.1 sec. after onset of CS+. This “first component” (“C₁”) also occurred during CS- (12.1±3.8 mm Hg), although the magnitudes of the two were significantly (p<0.05) different. Another group of rats (n=8) was treated identically except the tones were 15 seconds long. The conditional BP response consisted of two components. C₁ was reminiscent of that seen using the short tone: for CS+ a peak of 13.6±5.6 mm Hg at 1.5 sec. or, for CS-, of 10.0±4.3 at 1.3 sec. (p<0.05). In CS+ trials BP peaked again (“C₂,” 7.4±2.5 mm Hg) at 8.3±1.2 sec. There was no statistically significant C₂ for CS- trials, clearly demonstrating discrimination between tones. The unconditional BP response in both groups consisted of two large, closely spaced peaks in BP. Respiration was recorded in 3 additional rats. After shock delivery these subjects often showed a sudden shift between (1) a regular respiratory pattern with moderate chest excursion and (2) apneic episodes interspersed with single, deep breaths. This latter pattern was associated with large, low frequency fluctuations in BP. Continued development of the rat conditioning paradigm is especially warranted because of the ability to record sympathetic nerve activity in intact, awake subjects and the large number of readily available genetic strains, which model human pathological states.     

Aversive and compensatory classical conditioning with diazepam as conditional stimulus

The purpose of the first experiment was to investigate whether diazepam could acquire anxiogenic properties by signalling an aversive event. Rats were trained in an operant chamber in the pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) model of anxiety. Thereafter the animals were divided into groups that received classical diazepam conditioning (Group 1), and conditioning of diazepam + tone (Group 2). In the test phase diazepam was injected prior to placement in the operant chamber. Group 2 selected the PTZ-appropriate lever more often than the other groups, indicating that the tone induced anxiety, and diazepam did not. Tones and shock may therefore be more easily associated than diazepam and shock. The second experiment investigated this. Rats were trained the same way as in the first experiment. Thereafter the experimental group received injections of a small dose of diazepam prior to a second injection of a large dose of diazepam. The hypothesis was that a compensatory anxiogenic conditional response to diazepam's anxiolytic effect should be elicited by the small dose. There were no differences between the groups in lever selection, indicating that a compensatory anxiogenic response was not elicited.     

Subordinate swordtail males escalate faster than dominants: A failure of the social conditioning principle

In previous studies we have shown that subordinate swordtail males (Xiphophorus helleri) direct more bites to their mirror image than dominants and, in confrontations with strange dominant males, approach the opponent more often during the pre-escalation period of fights. Consequently, we predicted that fights between two omega-males should escalate faster than fights between two alpha-males. Indeed, in omega-omega fights preescalation periods were shorter and biting rates were higher than in alpha-alpha fights before the fights escalated from the first retaliation bite onward. Another new observation was that in omega-alpha confrontations the first bite in the pre-escalation period was executed more often by the omega-male and there was also a tendency to bite more compared to the alpha-male in that stage of the encounters. We conclude that sub-ordinate males escalate faster and fight more offensively prior to escalation than do dominant males. The results cannot be explained by the “social conditioning principle.” On the ultimate level moderate costs of losing and high benefits of winning a fight, constraints on continued growth after maturing, short life-expectancy, and habitat saturation are probably factors promoting the offensive tactics of subordinate males. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.