Age and overt verbalization in delay-maintenance behavior in children

The influence of overt self-verbalization on the maintenance of self-imposed delay of gratification was investigated in a task in which the child's possession of accumulating candy rewards was made contingent upon the child stopping further accumulation. Preschool girls who verbalized about the goodness of waiting and preschool girls who uttered an irrelevant verbalization waited longer before terminating their delay than did preschool girls who verbalized about the delayed reward or were silent. Second- and third-grade girls who verbalized about the goodness of waiting or who were silent waited longer than girls of the same age who verbalized about the delayed reward.     

A self-fulfilling prophecy in a competitive psychomotor task

Fifty-six pairs of male college students competed in games of electronic table tennis. The participants were led to expect a bias in the game equipment, such that one player would have an advantage and the other a disadvantage. All participants recorded levels of aspiration both before and after being informed of the alleged bias. Upon completion of the game, the subjects made ratings of causal attribution to five factors: ability, task difficulty, effort, luck, and equipment bias. The results showed that the students with the putative disadvantage set significantly lower aspiration levels and performed at a significantly lower level than those students with the supposed advantage. Thus the putative bias became a real bias, although a psychological rather than a physical one. It is suggested that the source of the bias and the performance differences was a self-fulfilling prophecy. In contrast to the results of earlier studies, there were no meaningful differences in ratings of causal attribution.     

Signaling and affective functions of conditioned aversive stimuli in an appetitive choice discrimination: US intensity effects

Different groups of rats received Pavlovian aversive conditioning in which US-shock intensity (0.25–1.0 mA) and CS-US correlation (+, 0, ?) were factorially varied. Then, the CS was administered for each group contingent upon the reinforced response in an appetitive choice discrimination. Absolute and ratio measures of speed of running in the presence of the CS showed that, at the start of discrimination training, CS+ suppressed and CS- facilitated performance. However, later in training but prior to any evidence of choice learning, these speed effects reversed, with the magnitude of both the initial and reversed effects being a positive function of US intensity. Consistent with the reversal of speeds, associative (choice) measures showed that CS+ facilitated and CS- retarded discrimination learning relative to CSo and, within limits, these effects were also amplified by stronger USs. The findings suggest that a CS has both affective (motivational) and signaling (associative) functions and that both are influenced by US intensity; however, the CS's affective property is rapidly extinguished in the presence of a hedonicly different reinforcer, while leaving the CS's signaling property largely intact. Hence, the CS functions as a transformed signal for the new (appetitive) reinforcer and facilitates or retards learning by mediating the reinforcer's presence (CS+) or absence (CS-).     

The effects of modifying color-meaning concepts on racial concept attitudes in five- and eight-year-old children

Williams and Edwards (1969) found that changing the positive and negative evaluations given to color concepts by preschool children through reinforcement procedures over two sessions reduced their racial concept attitude scores measured during a third session. The present study replicated their negative reinforcement and control procedures with 5-year-old children, and extended their research to include 8-year-old children. The present results replicated the original findings and in fact showed a larger change in racial attitude scores. While the color-meaning concepts were modified to a greater extent in the older children, the effect of the negative reinforcement procedure on racial attitude scores was similar for the two age groups.     

A scale of educational-vocational undecidedness: A typological approach

A scale designed to measure and identify antecedents of educational-vocational indecision was administered to a variety of college student groups expected to differ in career-decidedness. Results indicate that the scale is reliable, appears to discriminate career-decided from career-undecided students, and is responsive to interventions designed to alleviate educational-vocational indecision. A factor analysis of the scale yielded four factors: need for structure, perceived external barriers, positive choice conflict, and personal conflict. The instrument has potential for diagnostic, criterion, and conceptual purposes related to career indecision.     

Pictorial concreteness and mode of elaboration in children's learning

Paired-associate learning by children was investigated as a function of age (4 vs 7 yr), stimulus type (line drawing, color photograph, or object) and mode of elaboration (visual or verbal). Photographs and objects were associated with more learning than drawings at both ages and with both types of mediational elaboration. Only indirect evidence could be obtained for the prediction that differences among the three types of pictorial stimuli decrease with age. A previously reported Age × Elaboration interaction suggesting a relative disadvantage of visual elaboration for the younger children was not replicated.     

College major and career choice: A retest of Holland's theory

In an effort to examine whether the previously established relationship between vocational choice and self-ratings on Holland's personality stereotypes among college freshmen would be strengthened with a sample of male college seniors, 109 subjects, sampled on the basis of major field choice, completed a questionnaire to select career stereotypes which described them best. The relationship between self-ratings and academic major was also to be examined. Significant relationships were obtained for four stereotypes (realistic, conventional, enterprising, and artistic) on the basis of both major and vocational choice, although significant stereotypes were not identical in each. Three of these significant relationships based on vocational choice matched those obtained previously. An additional finding suggested that vocational choice was slightly more valid than major field as a basis for utilizing this technique. The more restricted class sample emphasized did not, however, produce a more substantial relationship between self-ratings and occupational choice as expected.