EFFECTS OF CHILD BEHAVIOR CHANGE ON TEACHER VERBAL BEHAVIOR AND RATING OF STUDENT BEHAVIOR1

The relationship between student behavior change and its effect on teacher behavior was investigated. A total of six boys and their two male teachers from two fourth-grade classrooms served as subjects. In two multiple-baseline experiments, students were exposed successively to baseline, placebo-therapy (a control for teacher expectation of student change), active-therapy (contingencies for student behavior improvement), and a return to placebo-therapy phases. As student behavior (the independent variable) improved, daily teacher ratings of children improved moderately, and the percentage of teacher vocalizations in response to appropriate (as compared with inappropriate) child behavior increased markedly. The latter shift in the distribution of teacher vocalizations was found to be largely attributable to the increased availability of appropriate behavior to which teachers could respond. This study raises questions about similar findings in an earlier experiment by Sherman and Cormier (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7 , 11–21). First, the main measure of teacher verbal behavior in both this and the earlier study was considered to be insufficient as a measure of teacher change. It did not control for the expected effects of changes in the base rate of student appropriate behavior. Second, student behavior improvement did not appear to reinforce teacher behavior. This was attributed to the noncontingency of student improvement on any class of teacher behaviors. The possible reinforcing value of student behavior improvement for teachers was not challenged. Implications of rating changes were also discussed.     

MEASURING CLIENT GAINS FROM STAFF-IMPLEMENTED PROGRAMS

Confidence in the adequacy with which staff implement training programs requires an analysis of the impact on the client. In two experiments, measures were devised to reflect this impact. In the first, a measure of the consistency with which clients participated in a toilet-training program revealed their participation to be erratic. Consistent participation occurred after a public display of the consistency of participation was introduced. In Experiment II, detailed measures were devised to reflect the client's performance during the implementation of two physical-therapy programs: range-of-motion and ambulation. Additionally, standardized measures of the benefits that accrued from their participation in these programs were devised. Improvements in both measures were slight and unstable during a condition of immediate feedback (supervisor praise) to staff but substantial improvements were obtained with the addition of a public display of the client's performance.     

INSTRUCTIONS,FEEDBACK, AND REINFORCEMENT IN REDUCING ACTIVITY LEVELS IN THE CLASSROOM

The biomotometer, an electronic device which simultaneously measures motor activity and provides auditory feedback, was used in combination with material reinforcers in an experiment to reduce children's activity level in a classroom setting. Subjects were nine boys and two girls, aged 9–13, from a day hospital program for emotionally disturbed children. After five baseline trials, each child had five contingent reinforcement trials in which he/she received feedback “beeps” from the biomotometer and was given toy or candy rewards after each trial in which activity fell at least 20% below mean baseline level. Then five noncontingent reinforcement trials were run in which children received rewards for wearing the apparatus without the feedback attachment. Results indicated that the intervention “package,” including instructions, feedback, and contingent reinforcement, was successful in all five trials for 8 of 11 children. Activity levels increased during the final noncontingent phase.     

Feedback functions for variable-interval reinforcement

On a given variable-interval schedule, the average obtained rate of reinforcement depends on the average rate of responding. An expression for this feedback effect is derived from the assumptions that free-operant responding occurs in bursts with a constant tempo, alternating with periods of engagement in other activities; that the durations of bursts and other activities are exponentially distributed; and that the rates of initiating and terminating bursts are inversely related. The expression provides a satisfactory account of the data of three experiments.     

主动控制感在大脑表征中的时空标记

主动控制感是主动动作过程中产生的控制自身动作, 进而控制外部环境的主观体验。构成动作主动控制感的核心要素是主观意图与结果反馈。本研究试图通过操控这两个核心要素的不同属性, 借助脑磁图等技术, 探寻主动控制感在大脑额-顶为主的脑网络中前-后馈的作用方式及时空特异性标记, 并建构新的认知神经理论模型。这将有利于理解人类动作的产生及后效、为相关精神类疾病的临床诊断提供更加客观的参照标准。     

Discrete‐trial training performance of behavior interventionists with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic replication and extension

Further research is needed on strategies to improve employment outcomes for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We replicated and extended prior research by examining the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of discrete‐trial training (DTT) performance of adults with ASD who were interested in careers as behavior technicians. Three participants received training on how to implement DTT with children and we assessed the maintenance and generalization of DTT performance in the absence of feedback. Results indicated that procedural integrity generalized across children and targets and maintained for 6 to 17 session days without feedback. Results have implications for the successful employment of individuals with ASD as behavior technicians and for future research on strategies to enhance their performance on the job.     

Audio Feedback with Reduced Self-focus as an Intervention for Social Anxiety: An Experimental Study

Background and Objectives: Socially anxious individuals tend to underestimate their performance largely due to attentional bias. Video and audio feedback (AF) with cognitive preparation (CP) have shown to improve socially anxious individuals′ evaluation of their performance in previous studies. In the present study, it was hypothesized that one of the three steps in CP, reduced self-focus (RS), is sufficient to cause an improved voice evaluation after AF. This was tested in a single-session randomized controlled experiment. Method: Forty-one socially anxious participants were asked to give a speech, then to listen to and evaluate a taped recording of their performance. Half of the sample were instructed to reduce their self-focus prior to AF, the rest received AF only. RS involved asking participants to listen to the audio recording as though they were listening to a stranger. Generalization effects were assessed by a second speech. Results: AF with RS led to more improved voice evaluations than AF-only after the first speech, and the effects remained in the evaluation of the second speech. More positive speech evaluations were associated with corresponding reductions of performance anxiety.Limitations: small sample, analogue study. Conclusion: One component of cognitive preparation—(RS)—appears to be sufficient to cause significant effects on voice evaluation in socially anxious individuals. If the results are replicated in clinical samples, AF with RS may be a promising intervention in the treatment of social anxiety.     

社交网站真实自我呈现对生活满意度的影响:线上积极反馈和一般自我概念的链式中介作用

为探讨社交网站真实自我呈现、线上积极反馈、一般自我概念和青少年生活满意度的关系,采用社交网站真实自我呈现问卷、线上积极反馈问卷、一般自我概念量表和生活满意度量表对554名中学生进行调查,结果发现:(1)社交网站真实自我呈现、线上积极反馈、一般自我概念和生活满意度两两之间显著正相关;(2)社交网站真实自我呈现对生活满意度没有直接预测作用,但能通过三条路径的间接作用影响青少年生活满意度:通过线上积极反馈的中介作用;通过一般自我概念的中介作用;通过线上积极反馈和一般自我概念的链式中介作用。研究结果进一步揭示社交网站真实自我呈现对生活满意度的作用机制,能为社交网络时代的青少年发展自我概念与提升生活满意度提供有益建议。     

Counterfactual Evaluation of Outcomes in Social Risk Decision-Making Situations: The Cognitive Developmental Paradox Revisited

We report a study that examined the existence of a cognitive developmental paradox in the counterfactual evaluation of decision-making outcomes. According to this paradox adolescents and young adults could be able to apply counterfactual reasoning and, yet, their counterfactual evaluation of outcomes could be biased in a salient socio-emotional context. To this aim, we analyzed the impact of health and social feedback on the counterfactual evaluation of outcomes in a laboratory decision-making task involving short narratives with the presence of peers. Forty risky (e.g., taking or refusing a drug), forty neutral decisions (e.g., eating a hamburger or a hotdog), and emotions felt following positive or negative outcomes were examined in 256 early, mid- and late adolescents, and young adults, evenly distributed. Results showed that emotional ratings to negative outcomes (regret and disappointment) but not to positive outcomes (relief and elation) were attenuated when feedback was provided. Evidence of development of cognitive decision-making capacities did also exist, as the capacity to perform faster emotional ratings and to differentially allocate more resources to the elaboration of emotional ratings when no feedback information was available increased with age. Overall, we interpret these findings as challenging the traditional cognitive developmental assumption that development necessarily proceeds from lesser to greater capacities, reflecting the impact of socio-emotional processes that could bias the counterfactual evaluation of social decision-making outcomes.     

反馈效价影响家族相似性类别学习的ERPs研究

采用事件相关电位技术,以大学生为被试,运用被试间实验设计探讨反馈效价（积极反馈,消极反馈）对家族相似性类别学习的影响。研究结果表明,行为结果上相比积极反馈,消极反馈在推理测验中的成绩显著优于积极反馈。脑电结果上,P200,P300和FRN均与家族相似性类别学习中的反馈加工有关;家族相似性类别学习中,积极反馈与消极反馈存在不对称性。相比于无反馈的条件,P300对消极反馈更加的敏感,消极反馈诱发更大的波幅,而P300对于有无积极反馈并不敏感。说明消极反馈条件下,吸引学习者投入更多的注意资源进行认知加工。此外,相比无反馈条件下,消极反馈条件下FRN有更大的激活,说明了消极反馈对被试以后的行为起着更大的调节作用。总之,研究表明相比于积极反馈,消极反馈对家族相似性类别学习更加有效,错误驱动发挥较大作用。