Spontaneous translation and language mixing in a polyglot aphasic

The literature on language mixing in polyglot aphasics is reviewed and a case report of a patient with spontaneous translation is presented. A microgenetic model of language processing provides an interpretive framework for language mixing and spontaneous translation as symptoms of polyglot aphasia. It is suggested that language mixing reflects a deficit at the linguistic level while spontaneous translation reflects a deficit at the prelinguistic level of language processing. A hypothesis about the organization of multiple languages in a single speaker is proposed.     

Psychological studies of children who have cancer

Increasingly, more optimistic prognoses for children who have cancer have led investigators to study the adjustment reactions of children who survive this traumatic experience. There is considerable evidence that the experience of having cancer, receiving prolonged and often painful treatment, and the uncertain condition of cancer survivorship have profound emotional effects on children. The characteristic features of the psychological impact of cancer are the experience of continuing uncertainty in a life-threatening crisis and the resultant search for meaning. Studies are beginning to find that even very young children actively struggle to organize and make sence of this experience.     

The effects of response-reinforcer contingency on time allocation in the open field

The present experiment explores the effects of the response (1-sec occupancy of a target area in an open field)—reinforcer (intracranial stimulation) contingency on time allocation in the open field in rats. The probability of reinforcement given a response (X) and the probability of reinforcement given the absence of a response (Y) were varied randomly across sessions within a subject. The following (X, Y) values were utilized: (.05, 0), (.15, 0), (.25, 0), (.15, .05), and (.15, .15). The results of this experiment indicate that rate of acquisition of time allocation preference is uniformly rapid during all contingency treatments wherein Y = 0 and is negatively related to the value of Y when X = .15. The relationship between the asymptote of the time allocation acquisition function and the value of X (when Y = 0) is positively sloped and negatively accelerated, while the relationship between asymptote and the value of Y (when X = .15) is negatively sloped with zero acceleration. Proposed contingency metrics are evaluated.     

The ambiguity of recognition memory tests of schema theories

The majority of theories about the effects of schemata (or generic knowledge structures) on information processing share two fundamental assumptions. It is assumed, first, that schema-based inferences about unobserved features of an event are generated, and, second, that such inferences are stored in long-term memory and thereby confused with traces of observed features of that event. To test these assumptions, researchers rely heavily on recognition memory measures of hit and false alarm rates. In the present paper, it is observed that schema theoretic interpretations of recognition memory measures are inconsistent with an interpretation jointly derived from the theory of signal detection and Mandler's (1980, Psychological Review, 87, 252–271) subjective familiarity theory of recognition memory; from the latter's perspective, recognition memory measures are considerably more ambiguous than schema researchers realize and do not necessarily support the typical schema theoretic interpretations. Data from four experiments are analyzed from the perspective of the theory of signal detection/ subjective familiarity model and demonstrate the ambiguity of recognition memory measures for testing hypotheses about the function and consequences of schemata for information processing.     

Children's numerical skill and judgments of confidence in estimation

This study investigated how children's fluent use of a basic numerical skill is related to their perceptions of confidence on a task of quantitative estimation. One hundred four 10th graders (age 15.7 years) were categorized according to level of numerical fluency as assessed by timed tasks of counting in various nonunity increments. They then made estimates of large numbers of dots and rated how confident they were on each trial. The estimation task varied according to two within-subject factors of task difficulty. It was found that counting skill was related not only to accuracy in estimating, but also to the appropriateness of the children's confidence in their responses. Skillful children made judgments that corresponded with actual task difficulty. A derived calibration score corroborated ANOVA findings of the interaction of skill level and task difficulty on confidence ratings. It also revealed that while girls were less confident than boys, they were actually more realistic in their judgments. Findings are discussed in terms of (a) the effect of stimulus knowledge on awareness of task difficulty and (b) sex differences in achievement-related expectancies.     

Interference effects on preschool children's learning sets

Four experiments investigated interference in 5-year-olds' learning sets. Experiment 1 manipulated intertrial and interproblem intervals, showing that increased intertrial intervals retarded performance. Long interproblem intervals interacted with short intertrial intervals to produce performance facilitation. Experiment 2 investigated interpolations within problems with either similar or dissimilar stimulus presentations. Similar stimuli caused greater performance decrements than dissimilar. Experiment 3 hypothesized that the within-subjects design of Experiment 1 masked interproblem interval effects. Testing between-subjects established that increased interproblem delays facilitate performance. In Experiment 4 interproblem delays were further tested in a series of shifts within and between dimensions. Increased delays more greatly benefited shifts within dimensions. It is concluded that intertrial and interproblem intervals affect learning set performance differentially. Intertrial delays result in performance deterioration due in part to interference. Interproblem delays facilitate performance at least in part by providing the opportunity for suppression of proactive interference, and perhaps in part by providing the opportunity for constructive cognitive processing.     

Why versus how often: Causal reasoning and the incidence of judgmental bias

When faced with the task of making a prediction or estimating a likelihood, it is argued that people often reason about the presence or absence and relative strength of possible causal mechanisms for the production of relevant outcomes. In so doing people rely on “causal cues” or properties of an inferential problem which indicate the nature of the particular causal processes which give rise to specific outcomes. It is hypothesized that causal cues, precisely because they focus attention and thought on specific causal mechanisms, can obscure the relevance of mathematical laws of probability and lead to statistically biased judgment. Two experiments were conducted. Their results support the hypothesis, showing that the incidence of the conjunction fallacy and the base rate fallacy depend on task-specific cues for causal reasoning.     

Optimal design of parity tests

Researchers often test a null hypothesis of no ability in the populattion (the so-called “parity” hypothesis) using a single, forced-choice question with k alternatives. In this study a result is presented which should help researchers select the number of alternatives that maximizes the statistical power of the parity hypothesis test. Also the conditions under which it is always beneficial to add alternatives to the test are derived. Finally, the derived result is used to compare several popular parity test designs. The results show that the frequently used triangle test is optimal under a very broad range of plausible conditions.     

Development of the Career Exploration Survey (CES)

The development, properties, and uses of the Career Exploration Survey (CES) are described. The CES is intended to (a) facilitate further theory development and empirical research on how exploration affects career decisions, development, and job outcomes, such as job satisfaction, commitment, and turnover; (b) provide a network of variables for investigating the dynamics of the exploration process; and (c) provide a set of criterion measures for examining the effects of personal characteristics and educational treatments on career exploration behaviors and beliefs. The CES is based on a conceptual framework derived from theories of exploration, stress, motivation, and career preference. It consists of seven measures of the career exploration process, three reactions to exploration, and six beliefs about exploration. Dimensionality, reliability, and validity data are presented for four studies comprising 680 observations across 601 individuals.     

The development of a measure to assess vocational maturity in adults with delayed career development

The development and validation of a measure of vocational maturity for educationally and economically “disadvantaged” adults who experience delayed career development is described. The Adult Vocational Maturity Assessment Interview (AVMAI) measures the attitudinal, cognitive, and behavior aspects involved in coping with exploratory and early entrance stage vocational development tasks. The measure employs a structured interview format accompanied by a detailed content scoring manual. It includes 120 items which yield scores for eight scales: Orientation to Education; Orientation to Work; Concern with Choice; Self-Appraisal: Interests and Abilities; Self-Appraisal: Personality Characteristics; Self-Appraisal: Values; Exploring Occupations; and Using Resources. Evidence for the measure's reliability, content, and construct validity is presented by examining the internal consistency of the scales, the reliability of its scoring procedures, its interscale correlations, and its performance in a pretest-post-test experimental situation. Research and counseling uses of the measure are discussed in the context of the need for vocational psychologists to develop and use measures that are appropriate for the specific career development problems of different groups in society.