Effects of cocaine exposure on infant development: A review

We review the effects of maternal cocaine use on the developing human fetus and infant in terms of methodological problems; the physiological action of cocaine on adults and on the developing fetus; the epidemiology of cocaine use; effects on fetal and infant mortality; growth of cocaine-exposed fetuses and infants; physical anomalies; evidence for and against infant withdrawal from cocaine; neurological effects; behavioral effects as shown by the NBAS; findings related to mother-infant interaction and emotional development; and parenting by cocaine-using mothers. Findings in most areas should be considered preliminary due to methodological problems. Published studies of long-term development are not yet available. In general, deleterious consequences of prenatal cocaine exposure are found for some portion of prenatally exposed infants. However, many findings of no difference are also available in methodologically well-controlled studies.     

Short-term memory in the pigeon: delayed-pair-comparison procedures and some results.

A discrete-trials, delayed-pair-comparison procedure was developed to study visual short-term memory for tilted lines. In four experiments, pigeons' responses on left or right keys were reinforced with food depending on whether a comparison stimulus was or was not the same as a standard stimulus presented earlier in the same trial. In Experimental I, recall was an increasing function of the exposure time of the to-be-remembered stimulus and was a decreasing function of the retention interval. In Experiment II, retroactive interference was investigated: recall was poorer after a retention interval during which was presented either a tilted line or contextual stimuli in the form of the illuminated experimental chamber. In Experiment III, a subject was required to engage, throughout the retention interval, in one or the other of two different behaviors, depending on which of two stimuli a subject was to remember. This mnemonic strategy vastly improved recall after 15- and 20-second retention intervals. In Experiment IV, the opposite end of the performance continuum was studied: by combining the effects of a larger stimulus set and the effects of what presumably was an increased memory load, performance was reduced to approximately chance levels after retention intervals shorter than 1 second.     

Exposure-based cognitive behavior therapy for anxiety related to asthma: A feasibility study with multivariate baseline design

In the presence of asthma, the risk of having an anxiety disorder is increased twofold. The few trials conducted on cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) for anxiety and asthma have mainly targeted panic disorder, and with mixed results. Experimental laboratory research indicates that increased anxiety may lead to hypervigilance toward asthma. Hence, fear and avoidance associated with increased anxiety due to asthma may be an important treatment target. A treatment that learn participants to differentiate between anxiety and asthma through gradual exposure to situations that risk triggering anxiety for asthma may be a possible avenue. As a first step to investigate this issue further, we developed a 10-week exposure-based CBT protocol for anxiety related to asthma and tested it in six participants using multivariate baseline design with repeated assessments throughout treatment. All participants reported satisfaction with treatment, as well as subjective overall improvement after treatment. Visual analysis, using graphs over each individual's trajectory, as well as potential efficacy on group level analyzing standardized mean change, indicated improvements in important outcomes. We conclude that exposure-based CBT is feasible and may improve anxiety related to asthma. Further investigation under randomized controlled trial conditions is warranted.     

Effects of early exposure to mating on adult sexual behavior in male mice varying in their genetic disposition for aggressive behavior

This study examined whether the sexual behavior of adult male mice is influenced by exposure in early postnatal life to brief episodes of mating. Another focus of interest was the interplay between a genetic disposition for aggressive behavior and the early exposure experiences. The subjects used in the study were male mice of the fiftysixth generation of selection for high (Turku aggressive, TA) and low (Turku non-aggressive, TNA) levels of aggressiveness. Moderately aggressive males of the parental strain (normal, N) were also used. Subjects of each strain were exposed from 21 to 32 days of age to mating mice behind a wire mesh screen. Control subjects were placed in a comparable enclosure, but were exposed to nothing. The results showed that male mice exposed to mating early in life showed a higher rate of activities in the sexuality tests, including aggressive responses. A genetic potential for aggressive behavior was related to a higher degree of sexual activity, and the early exposures optimized the hereditary attributes. The relation between sexual and aggressive behavior is discussed. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Preschool language exposure and use: A comparison study of dual-language learners and English monolingual children

This study explored the language experiences of dual language learners (DLL; n = 19) and English monolinguals (EM; n = 13) in preschool classrooms where English is the primary language of instruction and many home languages are present. Using the Language ENvironment Analysis™ system as a primary tool, we quantitatively analysed an average of 34 hours of recordings collected over 5–8 days for each participating child (M_age = 52 months) in six classrooms. Results showed that, during a typical preschool day, DLLs spoke as much as EMs but received less adult talk overall and had more 5-min segments with zero adult–child conversations than their EM peers. Follow-up analyses revealed that teachers generally talked less when children initiated the conversations than when adults initiated the conversations, and this pattern was particularly evident for DLLs. Study implications and future research are discussed.     

Trauma exposure and life satisfaction among at-risk black South African adolescents

This study aimed to construct a model to explain trauma exposure and life satisfaction among black South African school learners. A random sample of 366 black adolescents selected from ten South African schools participated (females = 63.2%; rural = 24.2%; mean age = 13.9 years). The school learners were surveyed on trauma exposure, resources, coping and resilience, and life satisfaction. A structural equation modelling analysis indicated that interpersonal, intrapersonal and affective strengths, coping skills, family involvement, and school functioning were associated with increased resilience, which in turn predicted life satisfaction. Interventions aimed at increasing resilience in contexts characterised by high levels of trauma exposure should prioritise helping adolescents access both internal and external resources, such as coping skills and family involvement respectively.     

Internet‐Based Self‐Help Versus One‐Session Exposure in the Treatment of Spider Phobia: A Randomized Controlled Trial

The authors compared guided Internet‐delivered self‐help with one session of live‐exposure treatment in a sample of spider‐phobic patients. A total of 30 patients were included following screening on the Internet and a structured clinical interview. The Internet treatment consisted of five weekly text modules, which were presented on a web page, a video in which exposure was modelled, and support provided via Internet. The live‐exposure treatment was delivered in a 3‐hr session following a brief orientation session. The main outcome measure was the behavioural approach test (BAT), and as secondary measures the authors used questionnaires measuring anxiety symptoms and depression. Results showed that the groups did not differ at posttreatment or follow‐up, with the exception of the proportion showing clinically significant change on the BAT. At posttreatment 46.2% of the Internet group and 85.7% in the live‐exposure group achieved this change. At follow‐up the corresponding figures were 66.7% for the Internet group and 72.7% for the live treatment. Within‐group effect sizes for the spider phobia questionnaire were large (d = 1.84 and 2.58 for the Internet and live‐exposure groups, respectively, at posttreatment). The authors conclude that guided Internet‐delivered exposure treatment is a promising new approach in the treatment of spider phobia.     

Does neuroscience hold promise for the further development of behavior therapy? The case of emotional change after exposure in anxiety and depression

Over the last few years, the integration of biological and psychological models has become increasingly important in clinical psychology. This paper presents a neurobiological framework for exploring how neuroscience research may be valuable in the context of new developments in behavior therapy. The importance of the cortical-subcortical circuitry of emotion processing for investigating the working mechanisms of exposure therapy is illustrated by current neuroimaging research. The implication is that during exposure therapy the focus of attention must be fully directed towards the emotional content of the threatening situation to facilitate prefrontal control over the amygdala and that new contextual information, of emotional salience, must be added to create inhibitory projections from the hippocampus. In addition, some possible mechanisms of action for different therapeutic approaches to both anxiety and depression and the role of neuroimaging techniques in predicting treatment outcome are discussed.     

Treatment of Hypochondriasis with Exposure

Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been shown to be an effective treatment for hypochondriasis. An important element of most of the empirically validated CBT protocols for this problem is exposure. Various approaches to exposure may be useful including in vivo exposure to health and death-related situations, interoceptive exposure to feared bodily symptoms, and imaginal exposure to symptoms and feared illnesses that are difficult to reproduce in real life. Strategies for enhancing the effectiveness of exposure, such as response prevention, cognitive reappraisal, and acceptance, are also discussed. Practical suggestions for implementation of exposure with this population are provided.     

Risk Factors for Community Violence Exposure in Adolescence

Community violence is recognized a significant public health problem. However, only a paucity of research has examined risk factors for community violence exposure across domains relevant to adolescents or using longitudinal data. This study examined youth aggressive behavior in relation to community violence exposure among a community epidemiologically defined sample of 582 (45% female) urban adolescents. Internalizing behaviors, deviant peer affiliation, and parental monitoring were examined as moderators of the association between aggressive behavior and exposure to community violence. For males with aggressive behavior problems and deviant peer affiliation or low parental monitoring, co-occurring anxiety symptoms protected against subsequent witnessing community violence. In contrast, males with aggressive behavior problems and co-occurring depressive symptoms were at increased risk for witnessing community violence. Implications of the findings for preventive interventions and future research are discussed.