The relationship between father absence and children's social problem solving competencies

Predictions of deficits in children's social problem-solving competencies due to early and continuing father absence were investigated. To test these predictions, equal numbers of father-present and father-absent third graders matched on a number of variables were assessed on measures of social problem-solving performance. In Phase 2 of the study, half of the children from the father-absent category received a 15 week intervention programme which was conducted by adult male trainers to provide structured practice in social problem solving. Results demonstrated that father-absent treatment subjects, compared to father-absent control subjects, improved their social problem-solving skills significantly. Despite improvement due to intervention, social problem-solving scores for father-absent treatment subjects were still below those for father-present control subjects. Educational and developmental implications of the findings were discussed.     

Values,preferences, needs,work ethics,and orientations to work: Toward a conceptual and empirical integration

There have been comparatively few attempts on either the conceptual or empirical level to integrate values, preferences, needs, work ethics, and orientations to work. A rationale outlining the way these concepts can be related to each other, is presented. It is maintained that these concepts are categories of relations between humans and work. These categories are qualitatively similar and differ principally in the level of generality of the characteristics of work considered. Complete-link cluster analysis is suggested as a method of analysis compatible with the proffered rationale. Two studies are presented with data gathered during the development of two versions of Work Aspect Preference Scale (WAPS). The samples for the two studies both comprised senior high school students, controlled for sex and age, who were administered the WAPS. Study 1 had a sample of 532 while Study 2 had a sample size of 482. Both sets of data were cluster analyzed. Results indicated a very substantial amount of agreement between the two samples, particularly at the more general levels of clustering. The bipartite and tripartite groupings of vocational needs suggested by L. H. Lofquist and R. V. Dawis (Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1978, 12, 12–19) were confirmed as were the findings of J. Mortimer (Sociology of Work and Occupations, 1975, 2, 29–53). Other clusters were also identified with findings from previous research. It is concluded that the investigation of preferences at different levels of generality and the interrelation between these levels shows great promise for both the researcher and the counselor and therefore merits more research effort.     

Foreperiod and visual stimulus intensity: A reappraisal

The joint effects of stimulus modality, stimulus intensity, and foreperiod on simple RT were investigated. In experiment 1 an interaction was found between stimulus intensity, both visual and auditory, and a variable FP such that the intensity-effect on RT was largest at the shortest FP. Experiment 2 provided a successful replication with smaller and weaker visual stimuli. No interaction was observed with a constant FP, although the visual stimuli were identical and the auditory ones psychophysically equivalent to the visual stimuli of experiment 1.It is proposed that an additive or interactive relationship between stimulus intensity and FP can be inferred only when the mental processes called for by the various uses of FP are simultaneously considered. Another precondition is an adequate sampling of the intensity-continuum with special reference to the retinal size of visual stimuli.     

A negativity bias in interpersonal evaluation

Two studies were conducted to demonstrate a bias toward negativity in evaluations of persons or their work in particular social circumstances. In Study 1, subjects evaluated materials written by peers. Those working under conditions that placed them in low status relative to the audience for their evaluations, or conditions that made their intellectual position within a group insecure, showed a clear bias toward negativity in those evaluations. Only individuals who believed their audience to be of relatively low status and at the same time believed their intellectual position to be secure did not show this bias. In Study 2, subjects viewed a videotape of a stimulus person and rated him on several intellectual and social dimensions. Again, subjects believed their audience to be of either relatively high or relatively low status. As a cross dimension, they were given instructions to focus on either the intellectual or the social abilities of the stimulus person while viewing the videotape. A strong main effect of audience status was demonstrated, but only in ratings of intellectual traits; subjects who believed their audience to be of relatively high status rated the stimulus person's intellectual qualities significantly more negatively. Moreover, this effect was independent of the instructional focus subjects had been given. The negativity bias is discussed in the context of previous demonstrations of biases toward weighting negative information more heavily than positive information, as well as previous demonstrations of seemingly pervasive positivity biases in memory and judgment.     

Maximum likelihood estimation for Luce's choice model

A terminology for general choice models based on the choice axiom is given. It applies to all kinds of choice experiments, such as confusion choice experiments, paired comparisons, triadic comparisons, directional rankings, scores on binary test items, and others. Maximum likelihood estimation for such general choice models is considered. Conditions for the uniqueness of maximum likelihood estimates are given, and it is shown that the estimates can be derived by iterative proportional fitting. This offers the opportunity of a general test of the choice axiom for all kinds of choice experiments using the likelihood ratio. The estimation and testing procedure is applied to data from a form recognition experiment, reported by W. A. Wagenaar (Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie, 1968, 23, 96–108).     

The advantages of mathematical modeling over traditional methods in the analysis of category clustering

A mathematical model for the analysis of category clustering is developed and testd. The model, which can be applied to categories of any size, is an extension of a two-item statistical model developed by Batchelder and Riefer (Psychological Review, 1980, 87, 375–397), and is equivalent to their model when categories consist of two items. The model is based on a current theory of clustering which postulates that the learning of a list of category items occurs on different hierarchical levels. Two category list-learning experiments are presented, and the data from these experiments are analyzed using the general statistical model. The first experiment reveals that the probabilities of storing and retrieving a cluster increase with category size, while the learning of items as singletons decreases. The effects of within-category spacing indicate that the storage of clusters decreases while cluster retrievability increases with an increase in input spacing. In the second experiment, the storage and retrieval of clusters are shown to be unaffected by whether the presentation of items is uncued or cued with the name of the category. However, the association of items decreases and the learning of items as singletons increases with uncued presentation. In the final sections, the general statistical model is compared to other methods for the measurement of category clustering. The model is shown to be superior to numerical indices of clustering, since these measures are not based on any theory of clustering, and because unitary measures cannot capture the multiprocess nature of categorized recall. The model is also argued to have certain advantages over other mathematical models that have been applied to category clustering, since these models cannot account for situations in which a portion of the items are clustered while others are learned singularly.     

An application of a biased version of the Bradley-Terry-Luce model to professional basketball results

Some extensions of the Bradley-Terry-Luce model for paired comparisons are presented and used to assess the existence of a home court advantage for professional basketball teams. It is shown how maximum likelihood estimates for these models can be obtained from a simple iterative scaling algorithm. Won-loss records for the regular season are used to make predictions for playoff series. The models are extended to include possible differences among divisions. These models can be applied in many other situations to incorporate group effects and order effects into analysis of paired comparisons.