Coercion and pragmatic presuppositions

In Category Mistakes, Magidor proposes that sortal restrictions should be viewed as pragmatic presuppositions. This contrasts with recent linguistic theories of successfully resolved category mistakes, e.g. coercions or copredication. It has been argued that for the proper treatment of such examples, sortal restrictions should be expressed by semantic presuppositions since they need to interact with compositional semantics. I explore possible ways in which Magidor’s theory could be extended to explain examples of coercion and copredication. The outcome of the discussion is that incorporation of these facts into Magidor’s pragmatic system might be possible, but ecessitates choices that are far from trivial.     

Linguistic and emotional-valence characteristics of reading passages for clinical use and research

PurposeFluency assessment in people who stutter (PWS) includes reading aloud passages. There is little information on properties of these passages that may affect reading performance: emotional valance, arousal, word familiarity and frequency and passage-readability. Our first goal was to present an extensive examination of these factors in three commonly used (“traditional”) passages. The second goal was to compare a traditional passage to a new passage, designed to minimize the impact of these properties.MethodsContent words were rated (129 participants) on arousal, valence and familiarity. Other linguistic features were analyzed based on available datasets. This information was used to assess traditional passages, and to construct a new well-balanced passage, made of neutral, low-arousal and highly-familiar words. Readability for all passages was tested using formula-based and CLOZE tests (31 participants). Finally, 26 PWS were evaluated on fluency comparing the commonly used “Rainbow” passage with the novel one.ResultsThe three traditional passages contain a share of emotionally valenced (22-34%), high arousal (15-18%), lower familiarity (6-8%) and polysyllabic (5-9%) content words. Readability was highest for the novel passage (on formula-based scales). Average disfluencies percent for the Rainbow and our novel passage were not significantly different. Yet half of the individuals in this sample showed a large difference between the two passages.ConclusionWe provide detailed information on potential sources of variance using the traditional passages. Knowledge about these characteristics can inform clinical practice (and research). We suggest a combined procedure, using more than one passage to assess stuttering in individual cases.     

Feature Statistics Modulate the Activation of Meaning During Spoken Word Processing

Understanding spoken words involves a rapid mapping from speech to conceptual representations. One distributed feature‐based conceptual account assumes that the statistical characteristics of concepts’ features—the number of concepts they occur in (distinctiveness/sharedness) and likelihood of co‐occurrence (correlational strength)—determine conceptual activation. To test these claims, we investigated the role of distinctiveness/sharedness and correlational strength in speech‐to‐meaning mapping, using a lexical decision task and computational simulations. Responses were faster for concepts with higher sharedness, suggesting that shared features are facilitatory in tasks like lexical decision that require access to them. Correlational strength facilitated responses for slower participants, suggesting a time‐sensitive co‐occurrence‐driven settling mechanism. The computational simulation showed similar effects, with early effects of shared features and later effects of correlational strength. These results support a general‐to‐specific account of conceptual processing, whereby early activation of shared features is followed by the gradual emergence of a specific target representation.     

认知重评阻断条件化恐惧记忆的习得与表达——对恐惧反应的长程抑制作用

情绪调节是人类特有的、并能有效控制个体情绪反应的行为方式,认知重评是其中最有效的调节策略之一。恐惧记忆是参与情绪障碍形成的重要病理机制,且已习得的恐惧反应难消退、易复发。为了考察认知重评能否起到长久抑制恐惧反应的效应,本研究利用条件化恐惧范式,第一天进行条件化恐惧习得训练,并在习得后间隔24 h及31天进行恐惧记忆的表达及自发恢复测试。实验1中,随机将被试分为两组,要求其在恐惧习得过程中进行认知重评或自然感受;在实验2,同样随机将被试分为两组,但要求其在恐惧记忆表达过程中进行认知重评或自然感受。结果发现,习得阶段进行认知重评显著降低了恐惧记忆的习得、表达及自发恢复过程中的SCR水平。同样,表达阶段进行认知重评也降低了此阶段的恐惧水平,且显著抑制了恐惧记忆的自发恢复。结果提示,在面对应激时,个体如果能够成功地利用想象进行认知重评,就有可能避免应激事件对个体的心理或精神造成伤害。     

说普通话儿童的语音习得

以说普通话的１２９名一岁半至四岁半儿童的口语资料为基础,首次确定了正常发展的普通话儿童在语音习得过程中各年龄段的音位集合、音位习得的先后顺序、及习得过程中典型的语音简化类型。研究结果可以应用到普通话儿童语音发展水平标准化测试,及对患有语音障碍的儿童的诊断。此外,研究结果还表明在普通话儿童的语音习得中同时体现了各语言共有的“普遍趋势”和普通话独有的语音特征,从而为跨语言语音习得的研究提供了新的证据,进一步发展了儿童语音习得的理论。     

数学等值概念获得的过渡性学习者认知发展的实验研究

就数学等值概念获得而言,一般地,过渡性学习者在解决简单问题作业时趋向于使用一种正确策略,而当题目较难时则使用几种不同的错误策略。经过针对性的指导（或输入适当信息）后极易掌握此概念,表现为使用一种正确且充分的策略。同时,“言语一手势失匹配”可能不是过渡性学习者的必然的认知特征。     

Pabiku and Ga Ti Ga: Two Mechanisms Infants Use to Learn About the World

Some of the things that adults learn about language, and about the world, are very specific, whereas others are more abstract or rulelike. This article reviews evidence showing that infants, too, can very rapidly acquire both specific and abstract information, and considers the mechanisms that infants might use in doing so.     

The power of one reinforcer: The effect of a single reinforcer in the context of shaping

During shaping, if the organism is engaged in behaviors other than the current approximation, the amount of time between reinforcers increases. In these situations, the shaper may resort to what is referred to as a “desperation‐driven click.” That is, after a period of no reinforcement, the shaper delivers one reinforcer for a nontarget approximation. Reports from professional animal trainers suggest that the animal may continue performing this new behavior, even if it is reinforced only once. This study attempted to model this phenomenon with college students. Results from the study demonstrated that a desperation‐driven click situation can be reliably produced in a controlled setting. When participants received one reinforcer for interacting with a new object following a period of no reinforcement, they interacted with the new object for a longer or equal amount of time as compared to an object that had a longer history of reinforcement. The results of this study have implications for the understanding of how reinforcement controls behavior.     

The effects of different mastery criteria on the skill maintenance of children with developmental disabilities

The acquisition of skills by individuals with developmental disabilities typically includes the attainment of a certain mastery criterion. We conducted a survey of practitioners who indicated the most commonly used mastery criterion as 80% accuracy across three consecutive sessions. Based on these results, we conducted a series of three experiments to evaluate the relation between mastery criterion and subsequent skill maintenance with 4 individuals with various developmental disabilities. Results suggest that 80% accuracy across three consecutive sessions may be insufficient for producing maintenance in some cases.