Cognitive and behavioral self-control strategies: Applications for the clinical management of adult stutterers

A model of therapy for adult stutterers which emphasizes the role of cognition in mediating the conditions for behavioral change is described. The philosophy of the program along with the specific forms and effects of several self-control strategies are discussed in relation to: (1) expectancy formation and the attainment of goals; (2) speech modification procedures; (3) transference of clinical gains; and (4) assessment of results. The use of cognitive restructuring procedures, self-instructional strategies, imagery and other coping skills for the management of speech-related stress is outlined. The importance of developing self-management and self-monitoring programs that clients may use in ongoing confrontations with real-life problems is emphasized in defining responsible behavior and the responsibility for change.     

Attention and automaticity in Stroop and priming tasks: Theory and data

Three major variables identified with attention and automaticity in the priming paradigm are shown to have parallel effects in the Stroop paradigm. A model is developed to explain the effects in both paradigms in terms of a single decision process that combines evidence from several sources (e.g., habitual associations and temporary contingencies between the prime and the target or between the unreported and reported dimensions). The model is applied to two Stroop experiments in which the faster two of three stimulus dimensions relate associatively and cue through a frequency manipulation the third, which must be reported. Depending on the direction of the cueing relation, attentional effects enhanced or counteracted automatic (associative) effects, and the attentional effects were stronger with the faster unreported dimension than with the slower one. These results corroborate findings in the priming paradigm and confirm the model. Implications of the results and the model for broader issues are discussed.     

The purposes of laboratory experimentation and the virtues of deliberate artificiality

Critics of the laboratory experiment have maintained that artificiality (the intrusion into the experiment of “unrealistic” conditions) vitiates any possibility of generalizability beyond the confines of the laboratory. It is argued here that such artificiality in laboratory experimentation is a defect or flaw only within the context of verification and may be a distinct virtue in the context of discovery. Indeed it is argued that social psychological experiments may not be artificial enough when contrasted with the most fruitful experiments in the natural sciences. One purpose of an experiment may be to maximize artificiality deliberately so as to discover regularities that do not presently obtain under the “real” conditions outside the laboratory but which are capable of existing. When such observed laboratory regularities produce potentially beneficial outcomes, an attempt may be made to create the specific artificial laboratory conditions outside the laboratory to benefit mankind. This logic, exceedingly common in the natural sciences, has been virtually ignored in social psychology, even in the laboratory experiment, in favor of “realistic” reproduction of existing or reasonably plausible situations. Theoretical benefits of this additional modality of experimentation are illustrated by two recent developments in psychology.     

The effects of constant vs varied reinforcer presentation on responding by autistic children

The autistic child's characteristic lack of motivation can create considerable problems for educators. Since there is some evidence that stimulus variation may influence motivation, this study was designed to assess the differential effects of constant vs varied reinforcer presentation. Specifically, two questions were addressed: (1) Would there be any differences in the total number of responses emitted by autistic children when the reinforcer was held constant as opposed to varied; and (2) would there be any differences in the interresponse interval for constant vs varied reinforcer presentation? The results clearly demonstrated that the children in this investigation made significantly more and faster responses when the reinforcer presentation was varied as opposed to constant. The results are discussed in terms of the effects of stimulus variation on satiation and implications for teachers of autistic children.     

Selective exposure to information and cognitive dissonance

Despite numerous attempts, the selective exposure prediction of Festinger's (A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1957) theory of cognitive dissonance has not been consistently demonstrated. In previous studies, this failure can be attributed to design deficiencies, and other related problems. The present study manipulated dissonance by having subjects write a counterattitudinal essay under conditions of high or low choice. Information in the form of pamphlets and discussion groups was offered to the subjects such that they could choose information that was consonant and dissonant with the decision to write the essay. The information was offered either before or after an attitude measure on the essay topic, as the attitude measure could also be a source of dissonance reduction. The results indicate that the high choice manipulation yielded greater attitude change than the low-choice manipulation. High-choice subjects desired consonant information more and dissonant information less than did low-choice subjects. This effect was found for both measures of information desire (pamphlets and discussion groups). Low-choice subjects who received the attitude questionnaire before the information measures wanted information more than if offered the information before the attitude questionnaire, implying a sensitizing effect produced by the attitude questionnaire for the low-choice subjects. The various effects are discussed as providing support for predictions from Festinger's dissonance theory.     

Subgroups of developmental language impairment

Nineteen children with developmental language impairments were given tests which measured syntactic and phonological skills in both comprehension and production conditions, semantic ability, syllable sequencing, and digit span. The results of discriminant function analysis show that the children could be divided into two groups. Group 1, expressive, was characterized primarily by deficits in the production of syntax and phonology. Group 2, expressive-receptive, was more impaired on measures of phonological discrimination, digit span, and semantic ability in addition to showing global syntactic deficits. An auditory-perceptual basis for the language impairments was not supported.     

Clinical notes: Masking devices and The Edinburgh Masker—Clinical applications within a prison setting

This paper outlines portions of the writer's therapeutics in the field of stuttering with emphasis upon use of masking the hearing of stutterers as a part of a total therapeutic approach. Commencing with devices providing continuous noise to override the voice of the stutterer so that he cannot hear himself and, thus, eliciting fluency. Described is the use of the voice actuated Edinburgh Auditory Masker within an intensive stuttering program in a prison setting since September 1978. It is concluded that the use of masking and the Edinburgh device has been helpful and productive with severe stutterers.     

Language performance on visual processing tasks in right hemisphere lesion cases

Seven language tests were constructed or adapted to assess the performance of three groups of 10 right-handed adult subjects: a right hemisphere lesion (RHL) group, a left hemisphere lesion (LHL) group, and a neurologically normal (NN) control group. Both the LHL and RHL groups produced poorer scores than the NN group on six of the seven tests. On two of the six significant tests, the RHL performed more poorly than the NN group. Analyses of words uttered during an oral story telling test indicated that the RHL group told significantly fewer complete stories using significantly more nouns, adjectives, and conjunctions than the NN group. On a 7-point scale, three judges rated the overall communication abilities of the RHL group as having “mild problems,” a significantly different rating than the ratings of the LHL and NN groups. The findings suggest that underlying visual spatial and perceptual deficits may be accompanied by clearly recognizable language differences in certain subjects.     

Possible psychometric problems in a test for selective deficits of conceptualization

We administered a modified version of the test of Semenza, Denes, Lucchese, and Bisiacchi (Brain and Language, 10, 243-248 (1980)) for selective deficits in conceptualization to a group of normals and psychiatric patients. Analysis of the results obtained with the normal sample revealed several psychometric problems. The two components of the test (one for thematic and one for class relationships) each had poor internal consistency and were significantly different from each other on a measure of discriminating power. It is not clear if our results are related to difficulty in applying the test to an English-speaking population or reflect inherent psychometric problems.     

Transformative Choice,Practical Reasons and Trust

Abstract

In this article I reflect on the question of whether we can have reason to make transformative choices. In attempting to answer it, I do three things. First, I bring forward an internalist account of practical reasons which entails the idea that agents should deliberate to the best of their ability. Second, I discuss L.A. Paul’s views on transformative choice, arguing that, although they present a real problem, the problem is not as profound as she believes it is. Third, I argue that, given the situation in which we face transformative choices (a situation of principled uncertainty though not cluelessness), trust is an appropriate response to transformative choices, and that when one’s trust that one’s current desires will be fulfilled in making a transformative choice is reasonable, one has a reason to make it. Thus, trust turns out to be a crucial response to a profound problem each of us will face during our lives.