Motivational control of impulsive behavior interacts with choice opportunities

Impulsive behavior has been investigated through choice between a smaller/immediate reinforcer and a larger/delayed reinforcer, or through performance on a differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL) schedule. In the present study, we investigated a methodological divergence between these two procedures: in the former procedure, delay is a consequence of the subject's own choice, whereas in the later procedure, subjects are explicitly reinforced for delaying a response. In Experiment 1, 7 rats maintained at 80% of their free-feeding weights showed poorer efficiency of lever-pressing responses on a DRL 30-s schedule than when they were maintained at 90% of free-feeding weight. In Experiment 2, 16 rats were subjected to a concurrent chain schedule: the initial link was concurrent fixed ratio 1 fixed ratio 1, and each of these alternatives was followed by a short-DRL requirement with a one pellet reinforcer or a long-DRL requirement with a three pellet reinforcer. In one block of trials, rats were not allowed to choose between the two terminal links (forced-choice), whereas in the other block of trials rats were allowed to choose freely between the two terminal links (free-choice). Compared with rats maintained at 95% of their free-feeding weights, rats maintained at 80% of their free-feeding weights showed poorer efficiency in the terminal links’ DRL schedule performance (just as in Experiment 1), but this difference was shown only in the forced-choice blocks. These results indicate that motivational control of DRL schedule performance interacts with type of choice-making opportunity and highlight the direct comparison of motivational control of impulsive choice and DRL schedule performance.     

Psychological distance to reward: Effects of S+ duration and the delay reduction it signals

A concurrent-chains procedure was used to examine choice between segmented (two-component chained schedules) and unsegmented schedules (simple schedules) in terminal links with equal inter-reinforcement intervals. Previous studies using this kind of experimental procedure showed preference for unsegmented schedules for both pigeons and humans. In this study, two changes in the experimental procedure were made relative to the usual experimental procedure reported in the literature. The first was that in the segmented schedule the second terminal-link stimulus appeared close to reinforcement presentation and the second was that the change in stimulus was brief, allowing the first stimulus to reappear and to be contiguous with reinforcement. With these changes, preference occurred for the segmented schedule. This result is consistent with principles of conditioned reinforcement, including delay-reduction theory.     

Applying social cognitive career theory to predict interests and choice goals in statistics among Spanish psychology students

This study investigated the usefulness of social cognitive career theory—SCCT (Lent, Brown, and Hackett, 1994) in predicting interests and goals relating to statistics among psychology students. The participants were 1036 Spanish students who completed measurements of statistics-related mastery experiences, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, interests and goals/intentions. Structural equation modeling (including multi-group analysis) was used to test the fit of the hypothesized models to the data. Results indicated support for SCCT as a way to predict students' interests in statistics and their intentions of engaging in academic or professional activities where statistics is used. Collectively, the predictors accounted for 50% of the variance in interests and for 77% of the variance in goals. Implications both for future research on SCCT and for intervention in statistics education are discussed.     

When, what, and how much to reward in reinforcement learning-based models of cognition

Reinforcement learning approaches to cognitive modeling represent task acquisition as learning to choose the sequence of steps that accomplishes the task while maximizing a reward. However, an apparently unrecognized problem for modelers is choosing when, what, and how much to reward; that is, when (the moment: end of trial, subtask, or some other interval of task performance), what (the objective function: e.g., performance time or performance accuracy), and how much (the magnitude: with binary, categorical, or continuous values). In this article, we explore the problem space of these three parameters in the context of a task whose completion entails some combination of 36 state-action pairs, where all intermediate states (i.e., after the initial state and prior to the end state) represent progressive but partial completion of the task. Different choices produce profoundly different learning paths and outcomes, with the strongest effect for moment. Unfortunately, there is little discussion in the literature of the effect of such choices. This absence is disappointing, as the choice of when, what, and how much needs to be made by a modeler for every learning model.     

Interval timing predicts impulsivity in intertemporal choice: combined behavioral and drift-diffusion model evidence

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the relationship between interval timing and impulsivity in intertemporal choice in a healthy population. A duration production task was used to assess interval timing. Choice impulsivity was assessed using a hypothetical money choice task. Results from 134 participants indicated that faster internal clock significantly predicted lower choice impulsivity. A subsequent drift-diffusion model analysis of the behavioural data revealed that in the sub-group of relatively farsighted participants, faster internal clock predicted consideration of more information before making a choice, which in turn was associated with lower choice impulsivity. In the sub-group of relatively impatient participants too, faster internal clock predicted consideration of more information, but which in turn was associated with higher choice impulsivity. It is concluded that among relatively farsighted individuals in a normal population, faster internal clock favours a more deliberate processing of the options at hand, thus eliciting less impulsive choices.     

Sadness and consumption

Sadness influences consumption, leading individuals to pay more to acquire new goods and to eat more unhealthy food than they would otherwise. These undesirable consumption effects of sadness can occur without awareness, thus representing more than just conscious attempts at “retail therapy.” In an experiment with real food consumption, the present paper examines the hypothesis that sadness' impact on consumption could be attenuated if the choice context counteracted appraisals of helplessness and enhanced a sense of individual control. Results revealed that: (1) sadness elevates self-reports of helplessness in response to the emotion-inducing situation, (2) helplessness mediates the sadness–consumption effect, and (3) inducing a sense of control (via choice) attenuates sadness' effect.     

Refining the dual‐process theory of preference construction: A reply to Gawronski,Martin and Sloman,Stanovich, and Wegener and Chien

Our target article proposed a dual-system framework for understanding context and task effects in choice. In this summary, we address the major points made by each set of commentators and, building on their suggestions, define a more precise dual-system theory of preference construction. We also propose some avenues for future research on a broader dual-system approach to understanding choice.     

Spiritual Maturity and Wholeness – A Concept Whose Time Has Come

SUMMARY

Legal advocates, clergy and politicians have all been challenged by the concept of the separation of church and state since the first European set foot on the American continent. Two schools of thought have been developed for this unique problem in the United States. Roger Williams took the position that there needs to be a separation of church and state in order to keep the church pure from the politics and every day work of the state. Thomas Jefferson, who is often attributed with developing this concept, took the position that the need for this separation was to protect the state from the church. Both positions often get articulated as if they are one concept in the United States. However, they are very different. This debate has carried itself in the current millennium into the work of the Office of Faith-Based Initiatives as well as the legislation known as Charitable Choice.     

Personality,epistemology and psychotherapists' choice of theoretical model: a review and analysis

This article reviews a body of research, empirical and speculative, describing variables thought to determine a psychotherapist's choice of theoretical orientation. The review finds two types of variables (1) the influences of training, colleagues, supervisors, initial clinical experience and (2) the effects of personality traits and epistemological values, beliefs and philosophy. The weight of evidence from the reviewed studies of cognitive behavioural/behavioural and psychodynamic psychotherapists, and an analysis of the data, suggests that personality and epistemic traits are significantly involved in orientation choice. This has implications for training, practitioner and client outcome satisfaction, and understanding the poor communication that exists between these two major orientations.