Parafoveal identification during a fixation in reading.

This paper deals with the extent to which the perceptual span in reading differs as a function of grammatical categories. Subjects read short passages of text and their eye movements were monitored as they did. Irregularities were entered into the text in the subject, verb, or object location of active sentences. Eye movement data were analyzed to determine how far from these various locations the readers were aware of the irregularities. Although there were no differences due to the different parts of speech employed, there was evidence that the perceptual span varied at different locations in text. It was found that readers seldom fixated between sentences and when they did, they were obtaining little information from parafoveal vision.     

Word recognition cues for beginning and skilled readers

Three experiments are reported in which subjects chose from an array the response alternative that most resembled a nonsense stimulus trigram or quingram. Subjects could respond on the basis of individual letter positions or overall word shape. However, word shape was not manipulated independently of the individual letters that comprise the word as has been the case in previous studies. Kindergarten children and first graders who were poor readers showed a more varied pattern of responses than first graders who were good readers. With simple stimuli (trigrams), beginning and skilled readers chose alternatives on the basis of overall shape and the initial letter. With more complex stimuli (quingrams), the skilled readers continued choosing on the basis of word shape and initial letters, but beginning readers only chose on the basis of the first letter.     

Contexts as switchmen: The variable effects of formal and informal instructional strategies on student achievement

This study presents an exploratory theoretical framework that analyzes the extent by which the contexts of classroom instruction mediate the effects of instructional strategies on achievement. The study first presents the two main tasks that teachers face in classrooms-teaching, and controlling the social order. The study then elaborates on formal and informal instructional strategies that teachers use to manage these tasks. The main foci of the study is to show that the effects of these different instructional strategies on student achievements vary by grade level. The results suggest that the contexts of instruction determine the magnitude and direction of the effects of instructional strategies on achievement. Positive effects on student achievement appear when a functional congruence occurs between teachers' instructional strategies and the contexts wherein they are used. The analyses suggest that changes in the cognitive, social, and institutional contexts of classrooms may change the relative efficacy of specific instructional strategies. Consequently, researchers should pay more attention to the changes in the sociology of classrooms during students' school careers. This study was supported by a post-doctoral fellowship from the Fulbright Foundation and by a small research grant from The Spencer Foundation. My wholehearted appreciation is given to the support I received from the Foundations. I am especially grateful to Charles Bidwell from the University of Chicago, who encouraged me to pursue this study during my post-doctoral visit in 1994–95. Discussions with Benjamin Wright and his warm support have been more than essential. The hospitality and the academic environment at the NORC and the University of Chicago have done wonders to the fruition of ideas advanced in this study. Yechezkel Dar and Ruth Butler made suggestions to the improvement of this article. Daniel Shalem and Rivka Berman assisted with editorial as well as substantive comments. The reviewers ofSocial Psychology of Education insightfully suggested ways to improve the final version.     

Relationships between SVIB nonoccupational scales and achievement for six Holland personality types

The subjects were 432 male freshmen at the University of North Dakota who completed the Vocational Preference Inventory and the Strong Vocational Interest Blank. Backward stepwise multiple regression was used to determine the relationships of eight SVIB nonoccupational scales to first semester GPA for the total research population and for each Holland personality type. Personality types were determined by using the highest T score among the first six VPI scales. Significant multiple correlations between the SVIB nonoccupational scales and GPA were found for the total research population and for five of the six personality types. For the Enterprising type, the eight SVIB scales failed to predict GPA significantly. The results were discussed in terms of the differential patterns of multiple correlations for the total research population and for the personality types.     

认知策略教学对聋人学习者的影响

为了向聋人学习者教授更高水平的认知策略,对英国和中国的两所聋校部分教师进行了特别的培训.让两国教师在课堂教学中运用这些策略,为时6个月,每周至少两次.对学生进行的测量包括瑞文非文字推理测验(1959)、认知行为系统观察检核表(Martin＆Craft,1998)、及学生对批判性和创造性问题情境所做出的回答.把研究结果与美国以前一项类似研究(Martin ＆ Jones,1985)进行比较.在中、英、美这三个国家的比较中,得到的结果几乎一样三个国家的学生都在推理能力上得到提高;在包含批判性思维(不包含创造性思维)的真实情境下,解决问题的能力得到发展;在课堂上使用认知词汇的能力也提高了,并且表述他人观点的能力上有所提高.经过认知策略教学的实施,教师身上也发生了变化中国教师在认知策略教学中更多的运用恒常的次序;三个国家的教师在认知术语的运用,问题解决策略,自我认识方面都经历了某种程度的提高.     

Creativity as a Matter of Choice: Prior Experience and Task Instruction as Boundary Conditions for the Positive Effect of Choice on Creativity

This study investigates the effects of prior experience, task instruction, and choice on creative performance. Although extant research suggests that giving people choice in how they approach a task could enhance creative performance, we propose that this view needs to be circumscribed. Specifically, we argue that when choice is administered during problem solving by varying the number of available resources, the high combinatorial flexibility conferred by a large choice set of resources can be overwhelming. Through two experiments, we found that only individuals with high prior experience in the task domain and given explicit instruction to be creative produced more creative outcomes when given more choice. When either of these two conditions is not met (i.e., low prior experience or given non‐creativity instruction), more choice did not lead to more creative performance. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

书院:明代心学建构与传播的主要依托

明代心学是批判程朱理学的产物。不但心学的建构是与书院密切关联的,而且面对官方的禁学,心学的代表人物及其门人纷纷创建、修复书院以传播心学,使心学成为明代的显学。为解决书院研究、传播心学与教授科举应试知识的矛盾,心学家主张将书院应试教育与传播心学结合起来,二者互为表里,使书院在研究、传播心学过程中发挥更大的作用。     

A developmental sequence in preschool children's acquisition of reading readiness skills and print awareness concepts

While various attempts have been made to explain the relationships among preschool children's acquisition of various aspects of print-related knowledge, studies have generally employed statistical procedures appropriate for linear relationships. Yet the relationships among measures of print-related knowledge may not be linear. One technique that has not been employed in this area but which provides a means for identifying nonlinear hierarchical relationships among measures is order analysis. The purpose of this paper was to examine empirically the acquisition of preschool children's print-related knowledge through order analysis. A data set that consisted of 60 preschool children's performances on five measures which assessed concepts about the purposes and processes of reading and the reading readiness skills of letter naming and visual and auditory discrimination was reanalyzed using ordering procedure. A multivariate analysis indicated a multidimensional relationship among the three reading readiness and two print awareness measures that differed across the three age groups. The hierarchical orderings of the five measures indicated that mastery of the reading readiness skills occurred prior to the mastery of the print awareness concepts.     

逻辑－信念冲突与推理难度对逻辑和信念判断的影响

双加工理论框架下的平行竞争模型和默认干涉模型对推理过程中启发式和分析式加工的启动次序和相互作用的性质提出了不同假设。本研究通过考察被试在信念判断和逻辑判断两种指导语下解决不同难度和不同类型推理问题的正确率和反应时,对两个模型的预测进行了检验。实验结果表明,解决简单问题时,问题类型对信念判断有显著影响,对逻辑判断无显著影响;解决复杂问题时,问题类型对逻辑判断的影响显著大于对信念判断的影响。实验结果支持平行竞争模型的假设,即两类加工在推理过程中同时启动,共同竞争最终的推理反应。     

Levels of phonological awareness in three cultures

This study focused on syllable phoneme onset levels of phonological awareness in relation to reading of Chinese and English in kindergarten and first-grade children from Xian (China), Hong Kong, and Toronto, cultures that differ substantially in approaches to reading instruction. English syllable awareness among native Chinese speakers was as good as or better than that among English speakers, indicating that the Chinese language may promote syllable-level awareness in children. Hong Kong children recognized significantly more words in both English and Chinese but were significantly poorer than the Xian children in both syllable and phoneme onset deletion tasks, suggesting that Pinyin training (given in Xian only) may promote phonological awareness even at the syllable level. In both Xian and Hong Kong, measures of syllable awareness consistently predicted Chinese character recognition better than did phoneme onset awareness. In contrast, English word recognition was predicted differently by syllable and phoneme onset awareness across cultures. These results underscore the roles of both language and writing system in understanding levels of phonological awareness.