The Common Ratio Effect in Choice,Pricing, and Happiness Tasks

The Allais common ratio effect is one of the most robust violations of rational decision making under risk. In this paper, we conduct a novel test of the common ratio effect in which we elicit preferences for the common ratio choice alternatives in choice, pricing, and happiness rating tasks. We find large shifts in preference patterns across tasks, both within and between subjects. In particular, we find that both the consistency and distribution of responses differ systematically across tasks, with modal choices replicating the Allais preference pattern, modal happiness ratings exhibiting consistent risk aversion, and modal prices maximizing expected value. We discuss the predictions of various cognitive explanations of the common ratio effect in the context of our experiment. We find that a dual process framework provides the most complete account of our results. Surprisingly, we also find that although the Allais pattern was the modal behavior in the choice task, none of the 158 respondents in our experiment exhibited the Allais pattern simultaneously in choice, happiness, and pricing tasks. Our results constitute a new paradox for the leading theories of choice under risk. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Do observer ratings validate self-reports of intergroup contact?: A round-robin analysis

Two studies used a round-robin design to examine whether the observers made consensual judgments of targets' degree and quality of intergroup contact, and whether these consensual judgments were correlated with the targets' own self ratings, and moderated by the observability of the contact. Study 1 revealed projection/assumed similarity, with participants rating others as similar to themselves to a large extent, but also yielded evidence for the validity of whites' self-reports of direct, but not extended, intergroup contact with Asians, even when controlling for extraversion and perceived attitudes. Study 2 replicated the main results, using both Asians and Gay men as outgroups, and showed that participants' ratings discriminated between the two discrete outgroups, with measures of contact and attitude being only meaningfully related within, but not between, outgroups. Overall, these findings help to validate self-report measures of direct intergroup contact.     

British men's hair color preferences: an assessment of courtship solicitation and stimulus ratings

Two studies examined the influence of women's hair color on approach behavior by British men and on ratings of physical attractiveness and personality. In Study 1, a female confederate whose hair color was dyed blonde, brunette, or red was instructed to sit in several nightclubs. It was found that she was approached significantly more frequently by men in the blonde condition. In Study 2, images of the same confederate were rated by 126 men. Results showed that the brunette stimulus was rated as more physically attractive, intelligent, approachable, competent, and arrogant, whereas the blonde stimulus was rated as more needy. These results are discussed in relation to the literature on hair color and attractiveness, but also in terms of women's own perceptions of their hair color.     

Daily Behavior Report Cards and Systematic Direct Observation: An Investigation of the Acceptability,Reported Training and Use,and Decision Reliability Among School Psychologists

More than ever, educators require assessment procedures and instrumentation that are technically adequate as well as efficient to guide data-based decision making. Thus, there is a need to understand perceptions of available tools, and the decisions made when using collected data, by the primary users of those data. In this paper, two studies that surveyed members of the National Association of School Psychologists with regard to two procedures useful in formative assessment, (i.e., Daily Behavior Report Cards; Systematic Direct Observation), are presented. Participants reported greater overall levels of training and use of Systematic Direct Observation than Daily Behavior Report Cards, yet both techniques were rated as equally acceptable for use in formative assessment. Furthermore, findings supported that school psychologists tend to make similar intervention decisions when presented with both types of data. Implications, limitations, and future directions are discussed.     

Infant Distress During Immunization: A Multimethod Assessment

The purpose of this study was to comprehensively describe infant procedural distress and pain across assessment modalities, and to compare similarities and differences across measures. A multimethod assessment of distress was conducted to investigate infants (N = 37) undergoing routine immunizations. Measures of infant distress included Parent report, nurse report, infant heart rate, and an observational measure of infant distress. Parents rated their infant's distress and pain significantly higher than did nurses. Observational and physiological ratings of infant distress were found to vary significantly by phase, and there were no correlations between adult ratings of pain and distress and physiological ratings. Findings suggest that infant procedural distress can be assessed in a number of manners. The discordance between these measures emphasizes the need for multimethod assessment of pediatric procedural distress in both research and clinical settings. Given the differences between parent and nurse ratings, clinicians should be aware that different assessment methods might lead to different conclusions about infant procedural distress.     

Age, Gender, and Ethnicity Effects on Parent–Child Discrepancy Using Identical Item Measures

Objective assessment of child and adolescent behavioral and emotional symptoms is traditionally obtained from multiple sources. However, a substantial body of research indicates that parental and child reports provide significant amounts of contradicting diagnostic information. Although a large and growing body of research attempts to identify potential influences of discrepant reports, the current research improves upon previous research in three primary ways: using identical item measures, using expanded statistical analyses, and evaluating cultural influences on observed discrepancies. A total of 2,153 parent–child dyads completed ratings of child behavior and emotional functioning. Specifically, parents and children completed the Ohio Scales, an empirically supported, identical item measure. Generally, reporter agreement was greater than typically reported. Similar to previous research with clinical populations, parents reported greater levels of child problems than their children. While age was not associated with observed discrepancies, parents and daughters demonstrated greater discrepancies on fewer specific items while parents and sons demonstrated more pervasive yet less severe discrepancies. Additionally, Hispanic dyads demonstrated less discrepancy than did African American and Caucasian dyads independent of discrepancy analysis. Discrepancies must be measured using multiple statistical methods in order to understand patterns. Furthermore, discrepancy research must address key demographic factors (e.g., ethnicity, gender).     

Behavioral Characteristics of DSM-IV ADHD Subtypes in a School-Based Population

From an ethnically diverse sample of 2,744 school children, 221 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) [123 (4.5%) predominantly inattentive (IA), 47 (1.7%) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive (HI), and 51 (1.9%) combined type (C)] were identified using teacher ratings on a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) (DSM-IV) symptom checklist. Subjects were compared to 221 controls on teacher ratings of behavioral, academic, and social functioning. The results revealed relatively independent areas of impairment for each diagnostic group. The IA children were impaired in all areas, but were rated as displaying more appropriate behavior and fewer externalizing problems than HI or C children. The HI group displayed externalizing and social problems, but was rated as no different than controls in learning or internalizing problems. The C group demonstrated severe and pervasive difficulties across domains. These findings support the validity of the DSM-IV ADHD subtypes; all ADHD groups demonstrated impairment relative to controls, but show different patterns of behavioral characteristics.     

Self-injurious behavior in institutionalized,severely/profoundly retarded adults—Prevalence data and staff agreement

Staff agreement on the identification of 18 different types of self-injurious behavior (SIB) and the prevalence of SIB were assessed in a population of 91 severely and profoundly retarded residents in a large facility for mentally retarded people in West Germany (FRG). The survey included 27 direct care staff; groups of three to five rated the behavior of 8 to 27 residents from their own wards. Agreement was calculated with two different formulas for multiple raters. The data suggest that the standard definition of SIB [Tate, B. G.,& Baroff, G. S. (1966).Behavior Research and Therapy, 4, 281–287], together with a list of the most common SIB topographies, yields variable and generally low staff agreement. The data for the prevalence statistics were derived from cases in which at least 50% of the staff had indicated the occurrence of an SIB topography in a resident. Sixty of the 91 residents exhibited some form of SIB; of these, 15 demonstrated only one type, 12 two, and 33 three or more SIB topographies. The data corroborate the notion of the two taxonomic classes of social and nonsocial SIB. Contrary to other classifications the data indicate that ruminative vomiting belongs to the social SIB class.The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. Udo Lück, chief psychologist of the Diakoniezentrum Hephata, who made this study possible by his interest and support. The help of Walter Edlinger in collecting the data and of Prof. Hartmann Scheiblechner in giving methodological advice is also greatly appreciated.     

Decoding deficits and social competency: A continuous rating approach

Males who self-reported heterosocial difficulties and whose performance in a role-played interaction was judged to be of low social competence were compared to high-competent males on a continuous rating task. The rating task required that subjects make continual, ongoing social competency ratings of their own and six other males' performance in a role-play situation. The continuous measurement of performance provided a profile of ratings that was compared on frequency, latency-to-first ratings, profile elevation or level, scatter, and patterning. Low-competent males had longer latencies-to-first ratings than high-competent males and less scatter in their continuous ratings than did the high-competent group. The reduced scatter effect for continuous ratings replicates previous work done with global ratings and suggests that the low-competent group may not be able to discriminate among social stimuli as well as the high-competent group. The research also suggests that the continuous rating methodology may hold promise as a tool to investigate social perception processes.